Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is the most recent version of the Internet Protocol (IP), the communications protocol that provides an identification and location system for computers on networks and routes traffic across the Internet. IPv6 was developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to deal with the long-anticipated problem of IPv4 address exhaustion. IPv6 is intended to replace IPv4.

Every device on the Internet is assigned a unique IP address for identification and location definition. With the rapid growth of the Internet after commercialization in the 1990s, it became evident that far more addresses would be needed to connect devices than the IPv4 address space had available. By 1998, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) had formalized the successor protocol. IPv6 uses a 128-bit address, theoretically allowing 2128, or approximately 3.4×1038 addresses. The actual number is slightly smaller, as multiple ranges are reserved for special use or completely excluded from use. The total number of possible IPv6 addresses is more than 7.9×1028 times as many as IPv4, which uses 32-bit addresses and provides approximately 4.3 billion addresses. The two protocols are not designed to be interoperable, complicating the transition to IPv6. However, several IPv6 transition mechanisms have been devised to permit communication between IPv4 and IPv6 hosts.

IPv6 provides other technical benefits in addition to a larger addressing space. In particular, it permits hierarchical address allocation methods that facilitate route aggregation across the Internet, and thus limit the expansion of routing tables. The use of multicast addressing is expanded and simplified, and provides additional optimization for the delivery of services. Device mobility, security, and configuration aspects have been considered in the design of the protocol.

IPv6 addresses are represented as eight groups of four hexadecimal digits with the groups being separated by colons, for example 2001:0db8:0000:0042:0000:8a2e:0370:7334, but methods to abbreviate this full notation exist.

Main features

IPv6 is an Internet Layer protocol for packet-switched internetworking and provides end-to-end datagram transmission across multiple IP networks, closely adhering to the design principles developed in the previous version of the protocol, Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4). IPv6 was first formally described in Internet standard document RFC 2460, published in December 1998.

In addition to offering more addresses, IPv6 also implements features not present in IPv4. It simplifies aspects of address assignment (stateless address autoconfiguration), network renumbering, and router announcements when changing network connectivity providers. It simplifies processing of packets in routers by placing the responsibility for packet fragmentation into the end points. The IPv6 subnet size is standardized by fixing the size of the host identifier portion of an address to 64 bits to facilitate an automatic mechanism for forming the host identifier from link layer addressing information (MAC address). Network security was a design requirement of the IPv6 architecture, and included the original specification of IPsec.

IPv6 does not specify interoperability features with IPv4, but essentially creates a parallel, independent network. Exchanging traffic between the two networks requires translator gateways employing one of several transition mechanisms, such as NAT64, or a tunneling protocol like 6to4, 6in4, or Teredo.

Motivation and origin

IPv4

Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) was the first publicly used version of the Internet Protocol. IPv4 was developed as a research project by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), a United States Department of Defense agency, before becoming the foundation for the Internet and the World Wide Web. It is currently described by IETF publication RFC 791 (September 1981), which replaced an earlier definition (RFC 760, January 1980). IPv4 included an addressing system that used numerical identifiers consisting of 32 bits. These addresses are typically displayed in quad-dotted notation as decimal values of four octets, each in the range 0 to 255, or 8 bits per number. Thus, IPv4 provides an addressing capability of 232 or approximately 4.3 billion addresses. Address exhaustion was not initially a concern in IPv4 as this version was originally presumed to be a test of DARPA’s networking concepts. During the first decade of operation of the Internet, it became apparent that methods had to be developed to conserve address space. In the early 1990s, even after the redesign of the addressing system using a classless network model, it became clear that this would not suffice to prevent IPv4 address exhaustion, and that further changes to the Internet infrastructure were needed.

The last unassigned top-level address blocks of 16 million IPv4 addresses were allocated in February 2011 by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) to the five regional Internet registries (RIRs). However, each RIR still has available address pools and is expected to continue with standard address allocation policies until one /8 Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) block remains. After that, only blocks of 1024 addresses (/22) will be provided from the RIRs to a local Internet registry (LIR). As of September 2015, all of Asia-Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC), the Réseaux IP Européens Network Coordination Centre (RIPE_NCC), Latin America and Caribbean Network Information Centre (LACNIC), and American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN) have reached this stage. This leaves African Network Information Center (AFRINIC) as the sole regional internet registry that is still using the normal protocol for distributing IPv4 addresses.

Working-group proposals

By the beginning of 1992, several proposals appeared for an expanded Internet addressing system and by the end of 1992 the IETF announced a call for white papers. In September 1993, the IETF created a temporary, ad-hoc IP Next Generation (IPng) area to deal specifically with such issues. The new area was led by Allison Mankin and Scott Bradner, and had a directorate with 15 engineers from diverse backgrounds for direction-setting and preliminary document review: The working-group members were J. Allard (Microsoft), Steve Bellovin (AT&T), Jim Bound (Digital Equipment Corporation), Ross Callon (Wellfleet), Brian Carpenter (CERN), Dave Clark (MIT), John Curran (NEARNET), Steve Deering (Xerox), Dino Farinacci (Cisco), Paul Francis (NTT), Eric Fleischmann (Boeing), Mark Knopper (Ameritech), Greg Minshall (Novell), Rob Ullmann (Lotus), and Lixia Zhang (Xerox).

The Internet Engineering Task Force adopted the IPng model on 25 July 1994, with the formation of several IPng working groups. By 1996, a series of RFCs was released defining Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6), starting with RFC 1883. (Version 5 was used by the experimental Internet Stream Protocol.)

It is widely expected that the Internet will use IPv4 alongside IPv6 for the foreseeable future. Direct communication between the IPv4 and IPv6 network protocols is not possible; therefore, intermediary trans-protocol systems are needed as a communication conduit between IPv4 and IPv6 whether on a single device or among network nodes.

Comparison with IPv4

On the Internet, data is transmitted in the form of network packets. IPv6 specifies a new packet format, designed to minimize packet header processing by routers. Because the headers of IPv4 packets and IPv6 packets are significantly different, the two protocols are not interoperable. However, in most respects, IPv6 is an extension of IPv4. Most transport and application-layer protocols need little or no change to operate over IPv6; exceptions are application protocols that embed Internet-layer addresses, such as File Transfer Protocol (FTP) and Network Time Protocol (NTP), where the new address format may cause conflicts with existing protocol syntax.

Larger address space

The main advantage of IPv6 over IPv4 is its larger address space. The length of an IPv6 address is 128 bits, compared with 32 bits in IPv4. The address space therefore has 2128 or approximately 3.4×1038 addresses.

In addition, the IPv4 address space is poorly allocated; in 2011, approximately 14% of all available addresses were utilized. While these numbers are large, it was not the intent of the designers of the IPv6 address space to assure geographical saturation[clarification needed] with usable addresses. Rather, the longer addresses simplify allocation of addresses, enable efficient route aggregation, and allow implementation of special addressing features. In IPv4, complex Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) methods were developed to make the best use of the small address space. The standard size of a subnet in IPv6 is 264 addresses, the square of the size of the entire IPv4 address space. Thus, actual address space utilization rates will be small in IPv6, but network management and routing efficiency are improved by the large subnet space and hierarchical route aggregation.

Renumbering an existing network for a new connectivity provider with different routing prefixes is a major effort with IPv4. With IPv6, however, changing the prefix announced by a few routers can in principle renumber an entire network, since the host identifiers (the least-significant 64 bits of an address) can be independently self-configured by a host.

Multicasting

Multicasting, the transmission of a packet to multiple destinations in a single send operation, is part of the base specification in IPv6. In IPv4 this is an optional although commonly implemented feature. IPv6 multicast addressing shares common features and protocols with IPv4 multicast, but also provides changes and improvements by eliminating the need for certain protocols. IPv6 does not implement traditional IP broadcast, i.e. the transmission of a packet to all hosts on the attached link using a special broadcast address, and therefore does not define broadcast addresses. In IPv6, the same result can be achieved by sending a packet to the link-local all nodes multicast group at address ff02::1, which is analogous to IPv4 multicasting to address 224.0.0.1. IPv6 also provides for new multicast implementations, including embedding rendezvous point addresses in an IPv6 multicast group address, which simplifies the deployment of inter-domain solutions.

In IPv4 it is very difficult for an organization to get even one globally routable multicast group assignment, and the implementation of inter-domain solutions is arcane. Unicast address assignments by a local Internet registry for IPv6 have at least a 64-bit routing prefix, yielding the smallest subnet size available in IPv6 (also 64 bits). With such an assignment it is possible to embed the unicast address prefix into the IPv6 multicast address format, while still providing a 32-bit block, the least significant bits of the address, or approximately 4.2 billion multicast group identifiers. Thus each user of an IPv6 subnet automatically has available a set of globally routable source-specific multicast groups for multicast applications.

Stateless address autoconfiguration (SLAAC)

IPv6 hosts can configure themselves automatically when connected to an IPv6 network using the Neighbor Discovery Protocol via Internet Control Message Protocol version 6 (ICMPv6) router discovery messages. When first connected to a network, a host sends a link-local router solicitation multicast request for its configuration parameters; routers respond to such a request with a router advertisement packet that contains Internet Layer configuration parameters.

If IPv6 stateless address auto-configuration is unsuitable for an application, a network may use stateful configuration with the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol version 6 (DHCPv6) or hosts may be configured manually using static methods.

Routers present a special case of requirements for address configuration, as they often are sources of autoconfiguration information, such as router and prefix advertisements. Stateless configuration of routers can be achieved with a special router renumbering protocol.

Network-layer security

Internet Protocol Security (IPsec) was originally developed for IPv6, but found widespread deployment first in IPv4, for which it was re-engineered. IPsec was a mandatory specification of the base IPv6 protocol suite, but has since been made optional.

Simplified processing by routers

In IPv6, the packet header and the process of packet forwarding have been simplified. Although IPv6 packet headers are at least twice the size of IPv4 packet headers, packet processing by routers is generally more efficient, because less processing is required in routers. This furthers the end-to-end principle of Internet design, which envisioned that most processing in the network occurs in the leaf nodes.

The packet header in IPv6 is simpler than the IPv4 header. Many rarely used fields have been moved to optional header extensions.

IPv6 routers do not perform IP fragmentation. IPv6 hosts are required to either perform path MTU discovery, perform end-to-end fragmentation, or to send packets no larger than the default Maximum transmission unit (MTU), which is 1280 octets.

The IPv6 header is not protected by a checksum. Integrity protection is assumed to be assured by both the link layer or error detection and correction methods in higher-layer protocols, such as TCP and UDP. In IPv4, UDP may actually have a checksum of 0, indicating no checksum; IPv6 requires a checksum in UDP. Therefore, IPv6 routers do not need to recompute a checksum when header fields change, such as the time to live (TTL) or hop count.

The TTL field of IPv4 has been renamed to Hop Limit in IPv6, reflecting the fact that routers are no longer expected to compute the time a packet has spent in a queue.

Mobility

Unlike mobile IPv4, mobile IPv6 avoids triangular routing and is therefore as efficient as native IPv6. IPv6 routers may also allow entire subnets to move to a new router connection point without renumbering.

Options extensibility

The IPv6 packet header has a minimum size of 40 octets. Options are implemented as extensions. This provides the opportunity to extend the protocol in the future without affecting the core packet structure. However, recent studies indicate that there is still widespread dropping of IPv6 packets that contain extension headers.

Packet format

An IPv6 packet has two parts: a header and payload.

The header consists of a fixed portion with minimal functionality required for all packets and may be followed by optional extensions to implement special features.

The fixed header occupies the first 40 octets (320 bits) of the IPv6 packet. It contains the source and destination addresses, traffic classification options, a hop counter, and the type of the optional extension or payload which follows the header. This Next Header field tells the receiver how to interpret the data which follows the header. If the packet contains options, this field contains the option type of the next option. The “Next Header” field of the last option, points to the upper-layer protocol that is carried in the packet’s payload.

Extension headers carry options that are used for special treatment of a packet in the network, e.g., for routing, fragmentation, and for security using the IPsec framework.

Without special options, a payload must be less than 64KB. With a Jumbo Payload option (in a Hop-By-Hop Options extension header), the payload must be less than 4 GB.

Unlike with IPv4, routers never fragment a packet. Hosts are expected to use Path MTU Discovery to make their packets small enough to reach the destination without needing to be fragmented.

IPv6 in the Domain Name System

In the Domain Name System, hostnames are mapped to IPv6 addresses by AAAA resource records, so-called quad-A records. For reverse resolution, the IETF reserved the domain ip6.arpa, where the name space is hierarchically divided by the 1-digit hexadecimal representation of nibble units (4 bits) of the IPv6 address.

Deployment

The 1993 introduction of Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) in the routing and IP address allocation for the Internet, and the extensive use of network address translation (NAT) delayed IPv4 address exhaustion. The final phase of exhaustion started on 3 February 2011. However, despite a decade long development and implementation history as a Standards Track protocol, general worldwide deployment of IPv6 is increasing slowly. As of September 2013, about 4% of domain names and 16.2% of the networks on the Internet have IPv6 protocol support.

IPv6 has been implemented on all major operating systems in use in commercial, business, and home consumer environments. Since 2008, the domain name system can be used in IPv6. IPv6 was first used in a major world event during the 2008 Summer Olympic Games, the largest showcase of IPv6 technology since the inception of IPv6. Some governments including the Federal government of the United States and China have issued guidelines and requirements for IPv6 capability.

In 2009, Verizon mandated IPv6 operation, and reduced IPv4 to an optional capability, for LTE cellular hardware. As of June 2012, T-Mobile USA also supports external IPv6 access.

As of 2014, IPv4 still carried more than 99% of worldwide Internet traffic. The Internet exchange in Amsterdam is the only large exchange that publicly shows IPv6 traffic statistics, which as of November 2016 is tracking at about 1.6%, growing at about 0.3% per year. As of 12 November 2016, the percentage of users reaching Google services with IPv6 reached 15.0% for the first time, growing at about 5.6% per year, although varying widely by region. As of 22 April 2015, deployment of IPv6 on web servers also varied widely, with over half of web pages available via IPv6 in many regions, with about 14% of web servers supporting IPv6.

Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is the most recent version of the Internet Protocol (IP), the communications protocol that provides an identification and location system for computers on networks and routes traffic across the Internet. IPv6 was developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to deal with the long-anticipated problem of IPv4 address exhaustion. IPv6 is intended to replace IPv4.

Every device on the Internet is assigned a unique IP address for identification and location definition. With the rapid growth of the Internet after commercialization in the 1990s, it became evident that far more addresses would be needed to connect devices than the IPv4 address space had available. By 1998, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) had formalized the successor protocol. IPv6 uses a 128-bit address, theoretically allowing 2128, or approximately 3.4×1038 addresses. The actual number is slightly smaller, as multiple ranges are reserved for special use or completely excluded from use. The total number of possible IPv6 addresses is more than 7.9×1028 times as many as IPv4, which uses 32-bit addresses and provides approximately 4.3 billion addresses. The two protocols are not designed to be interoperable, complicating the transition to IPv6. However, several IPv6 transition mechanisms have been devised to permit communication between IPv4 and IPv6 hosts.

IPv6 provides other technical benefits in addition to a larger addressing space. In particular, it permits hierarchical address allocation methods that facilitate route aggregation across the Internet, and thus limit the expansion of routing tables. The use of multicast addressing is expanded and simplified, and provides additional optimization for the delivery of services. Device mobility, security, and configuration aspects have been considered in the design of the protocol.

IPv6 addresses are represented as eight groups of four hexadecimal digits with the groups being separated by colons, for example 2001:0db8:0000:0042:0000:8a2e:0370:7334, but methods to abbreviate this full notation exist.

Main features

IPv6 is an Internet Layer protocol for packet-switched internetworking and provides end-to-end datagram transmission across multiple IP networks, closely adhering to the design principles developed in the previous version of the protocol, Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4). IPv6 was first formally described in Internet standard document RFC 2460, published in December 1998.

In addition to offering more addresses, IPv6 also implements features not present in IPv4. It simplifies aspects of address assignment (stateless address autoconfiguration), network renumbering, and router announcements when changing network connectivity providers. It simplifies processing of packets in routers by placing the responsibility for packet fragmentation into the end points. The IPv6 subnet size is standardized by fixing the size of the host identifier portion of an address to 64 bits to facilitate an automatic mechanism for forming the host identifier from link layer addressing information (MAC address). Network security was a design requirement of the IPv6 architecture, and included the original specification of IPsec.

IPv6 does not specify interoperability features with IPv4, but essentially creates a parallel, independent network. Exchanging traffic between the two networks requires translator gateways employing one of several transition mechanisms, such as NAT64, or a tunneling protocol like 6to4, 6in4, or Teredo.

Motivation and origin

IPv4

Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) was the first publicly used version of the Internet Protocol. IPv4 was developed as a research project by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), a United States Department of Defense agency, before becoming the foundation for the Internet and the World Wide Web. It is currently described by IETF publication RFC 791 (September 1981), which replaced an earlier definition (RFC 760, January 1980). IPv4 included an addressing system that used numerical identifiers consisting of 32 bits. These addresses are typically displayed in quad-dotted notation as decimal values of four octets, each in the range 0 to 255, or 8 bits per number. Thus, IPv4 provides an addressing capability of 232 or approximately 4.3 billion addresses. Address exhaustion was not initially a concern in IPv4 as this version was originally presumed to be a test of DARPA’s networking concepts. During the first decade of operation of the Internet, it became apparent that methods had to be developed to conserve address space. In the early 1990s, even after the redesign of the addressing system using a classless network model, it became clear that this would not suffice to prevent IPv4 address exhaustion, and that further changes to the Internet infrastructure were needed.

The last unassigned top-level address blocks of 16 million IPv4 addresses were allocated in February 2011 by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) to the five regional Internet registries (RIRs). However, each RIR still has available address pools and is expected to continue with standard address allocation policies until one /8 Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) block remains. After that, only blocks of 1024 addresses (/22) will be provided from the RIRs to a local Internet registry (LIR). As of September 2015, all of Asia-Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC), the Réseaux IP Européens Network Coordination Centre (RIPE_NCC), Latin America and Caribbean Network Information Centre (LACNIC), and American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN) have reached this stage. This leaves African Network Information Center (AFRINIC) as the sole regional internet registry that is still using the normal protocol for distributing IPv4 addresses.

Working-group proposals

By the beginning of 1992, several proposals appeared for an expanded Internet addressing system and by the end of 1992 the IETF announced a call for white papers. In September 1993, the IETF created a temporary, ad-hoc IP Next Generation (IPng) area to deal specifically with such issues. The new area was led by Allison Mankin and Scott Bradner, and had a directorate with 15 engineers from diverse backgrounds for direction-setting and preliminary document review: The working-group members were J. Allard (Microsoft), Steve Bellovin (AT&T), Jim Bound (Digital Equipment Corporation), Ross Callon (Wellfleet), Brian Carpenter (CERN), Dave Clark (MIT), John Curran (NEARNET), Steve Deering (Xerox), Dino Farinacci (Cisco), Paul Francis (NTT), Eric Fleischmann (Boeing), Mark Knopper (Ameritech), Greg Minshall (Novell), Rob Ullmann (Lotus), and Lixia Zhang (Xerox).

The Internet Engineering Task Force adopted the IPng model on 25 July 1994, with the formation of several IPng working groups. By 1996, a series of RFCs was released defining Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6), starting with RFC 1883. (Version 5 was used by the experimental Internet Stream Protocol.)

It is widely expected that the Internet will use IPv4 alongside IPv6 for the foreseeable future. Direct communication between the IPv4 and IPv6 network protocols is not possible; therefore, intermediary trans-protocol systems are needed as a communication conduit between IPv4 and IPv6 whether on a single device or among network nodes.

Comparison with IPv4

On the Internet, data is transmitted in the form of network packets. IPv6 specifies a new packet format, designed to minimize packet header processing by routers. Because the headers of IPv4 packets and IPv6 packets are significantly different, the two protocols are not interoperable. However, in most respects, IPv6 is an extension of IPv4. Most transport and application-layer protocols need little or no change to operate over IPv6; exceptions are application protocols that embed Internet-layer addresses, such as File Transfer Protocol (FTP) and Network Time Protocol (NTP), where the new address format may cause conflicts with existing protocol syntax.

Larger address space

The main advantage of IPv6 over IPv4 is its larger address space. The length of an IPv6 address is 128 bits, compared with 32 bits in IPv4. The address space therefore has 2128 or approximately 3.4×1038 addresses.

In addition, the IPv4 address space is poorly allocated; in 2011, approximately 14% of all available addresses were utilized. While these numbers are large, it was not the intent of the designers of the IPv6 address space to assure geographical saturation[clarification needed] with usable addresses. Rather, the longer addresses simplify allocation of addresses, enable efficient route aggregation, and allow implementation of special addressing features. In IPv4, complex Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) methods were developed to make the best use of the small address space. The standard size of a subnet in IPv6 is 264 addresses, the square of the size of the entire IPv4 address space. Thus, actual address space utilization rates will be small in IPv6, but network management and routing efficiency are improved by the large subnet space and hierarchical route aggregation.

Renumbering an existing network for a new connectivity provider with different routing prefixes is a major effort with IPv4. With IPv6, however, changing the prefix announced by a few routers can in principle renumber an entire network, since the host identifiers (the least-significant 64 bits of an address) can be independently self-configured by a host.

Multicasting

Multicasting, the transmission of a packet to multiple destinations in a single send operation, is part of the base specification in IPv6. In IPv4 this is an optional although commonly implemented feature. IPv6 multicast addressing shares common features and protocols with IPv4 multicast, but also provides changes and improvements by eliminating the need for certain protocols. IPv6 does not implement traditional IP broadcast, i.e. the transmission of a packet to all hosts on the attached link using a special broadcast address, and therefore does not define broadcast addresses. In IPv6, the same result can be achieved by sending a packet to the link-local all nodes multicast group at address ff02::1, which is analogous to IPv4 multicasting to address 224.0.0.1. IPv6 also provides for new multicast implementations, including embedding rendezvous point addresses in an IPv6 multicast group address, which simplifies the deployment of inter-domain solutions.

In IPv4 it is very difficult for an organization to get even one globally routable multicast group assignment, and the implementation of inter-domain solutions is arcane. Unicast address assignments by a local Internet registry for IPv6 have at least a 64-bit routing prefix, yielding the smallest subnet size available in IPv6 (also 64 bits). With such an assignment it is possible to embed the unicast address prefix into the IPv6 multicast address format, while still providing a 32-bit block, the least significant bits of the address, or approximately 4.2 billion multicast group identifiers. Thus each user of an IPv6 subnet automatically has available a set of globally routable source-specific multicast groups for multicast applications.

Stateless address autoconfiguration (SLAAC)

IPv6 hosts can configure themselves automatically when connected to an IPv6 network using the Neighbor Discovery Protocol via Internet Control Message Protocol version 6 (ICMPv6) router discovery messages. When first connected to a network, a host sends a link-local router solicitation multicast request for its configuration parameters; routers respond to such a request with a router advertisement packet that contains Internet Layer configuration parameters.

If IPv6 stateless address auto-configuration is unsuitable for an application, a network may use stateful configuration with the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol version 6 (DHCPv6) or hosts may be configured manually using static methods.

Routers present a special case of requirements for address configuration, as they often are sources of autoconfiguration information, such as router and prefix advertisements. Stateless configuration of routers can be achieved with a special router renumbering protocol.

Network-layer security

Internet Protocol Security (IPsec) was originally developed for IPv6, but found widespread deployment first in IPv4, for which it was re-engineered. IPsec was a mandatory specification of the base IPv6 protocol suite, but has since been made optional.

Simplified processing by routers

In IPv6, the packet header and the process of packet forwarding have been simplified. Although IPv6 packet headers are at least twice the size of IPv4 packet headers, packet processing by routers is generally more efficient, because less processing is required in routers. This furthers the end-to-end principle of Internet design, which envisioned that most processing in the network occurs in the leaf nodes.

The packet header in IPv6 is simpler than the IPv4 header. Many rarely used fields have been moved to optional header extensions.

IPv6 routers do not perform IP fragmentation. IPv6 hosts are required to either perform path MTU discovery, perform end-to-end fragmentation, or to send packets no larger than the default Maximum transmission unit (MTU), which is 1280 octets.

The IPv6 header is not protected by a checksum. Integrity protection is assumed to be assured by both the link layer or error detection and correction methods in higher-layer protocols, such as TCP and UDP. In IPv4, UDP may actually have a checksum of 0, indicating no checksum; IPv6 requires a checksum in UDP. Therefore, IPv6 routers do not need to recompute a checksum when header fields change, such as the time to live (TTL) or hop count.

The TTL field of IPv4 has been renamed to Hop Limit in IPv6, reflecting the fact that routers are no longer expected to compute the time a packet has spent in a queue.

Mobility

Unlike mobile IPv4, mobile IPv6 avoids triangular routing and is therefore as efficient as native IPv6. IPv6 routers may also allow entire subnets to move to a new router connection point without renumbering.

Options extensibility

The IPv6 packet header has a minimum size of 40 octets. Options are implemented as extensions. This provides the opportunity to extend the protocol in the future without affecting the core packet structure. However, recent studies indicate that there is still widespread dropping of IPv6 packets that contain extension headers.

Packet format

An IPv6 packet has two parts: a header and payload.

The header consists of a fixed portion with minimal functionality required for all packets and may be followed by optional extensions to implement special features.

The fixed header occupies the first 40 octets (320 bits) of the IPv6 packet. It contains the source and destination addresses, traffic classification options, a hop counter, and the type of the optional extension or payload which follows the header. This Next Header field tells the receiver how to interpret the data which follows the header. If the packet contains options, this field contains the option type of the next option. The “Next Header” field of the last option, points to the upper-layer protocol that is carried in the packet’s payload.

Extension headers carry options that are used for special treatment of a packet in the network, e.g., for routing, fragmentation, and for security using the IPsec framework.

Without special options, a payload must be less than 64KB. With a Jumbo Payload option (in a Hop-By-Hop Options extension header), the payload must be less than 4 GB.

Unlike with IPv4, routers never fragment a packet. Hosts are expected to use Path MTU Discovery to make their packets small enough to reach the destination without needing to be fragmented.

IPv6 in the Domain Name System

In the Domain Name System, hostnames are mapped to IPv6 addresses by AAAA resource records, so-called quad-A records. For reverse resolution, the IETF reserved the domain ip6.arpa, where the name space is hierarchically divided by the 1-digit hexadecimal representation of nibble units (4 bits) of the IPv6 address.

Deployment

The 1993 introduction of Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) in the routing and IP address allocation for the Internet, and the extensive use of network address translation (NAT) delayed IPv4 address exhaustion. The final phase of exhaustion started on 3 February 2011. However, despite a decade long development and implementation history as a Standards Track protocol, general worldwide deployment of IPv6 is increasing slowly. As of September 2013, about 4% of domain names and 16.2% of the networks on the Internet have IPv6 protocol support.

IPv6 has been implemented on all major operating systems in use in commercial, business, and home consumer environments. Since 2008, the domain name system can be used in IPv6. IPv6 was first used in a major world event during the 2008 Summer Olympic Games, the largest showcase of IPv6 technology since the inception of IPv6. Some governments including the Federal government of the United States and China have issued guidelines and requirements for IPv6 capability.

In 2009, Verizon mandated IPv6 operation, and reduced IPv4 to an optional capability, for LTE cellular hardware. As of June 2012, T-Mobile USA also supports external IPv6 access.

As of 2014, IPv4 still carried more than 99% of worldwide Internet traffic. The Internet exchange in Amsterdam is the only large exchange that publicly shows IPv6 traffic statistics, which as of November 2016 is tracking at about 1.6%, growing at about 0.3% per year. As of 12 November 2016, the percentage of users reaching Google services with IPv6 reached 15.0% for the first time, growing at about 5.6% per year, although varying widely by region. As of 22 April 2015, deployment of IPv6 on web servers also varied widely, with over half of web pages available via IPv6 in many regions, with about 14% of web servers supporting IPv6.

On February 3, 2011, ICANN announced that it had distributed the last batch of its remaining IPv4 addresses to the world’s five Regional Internet Registries, the organizations that manage IP addresses in different regions. These Registries began assigning the final IPv4 addresses within their regions until they ran out completely, which could come as soon as early 2012.

As the last blocks of IPv4 addresses are assigned, adoption of a new protocol—IPv6—is essential to the continued growth of the open Internet. IPv6 will expand Internet address space to 128 bits, making room for approximately 340 trillion trillion trillion addresses (enough to last us for the foreseeable future).

Google, along with others, has been working for years to implement the larger IPv6 format. We’re also participating in the planned World IPv6 Day, scheduled for June 8, 2011. On this day, all of the participating organizations will enable access to as many services as possible via IPv6.

Today’s ICANN announcement marks a major milestone in the history of the Internet. IPv6, the next chapter, is now under way.

The activation of this procedure was triggered when Latin America and Caribbean Network Information Centre’s (LACNIC) supply of addresses dropped to below 8 million.

This move signals that the global supply of IPv4 addresses is reaching a critical level. As more and more devices come online, the demand for IP addresses rises, and IPv4 is incapable of supplying enough addresses to facilitate this expansion. ICANN encourages network operators around the globe to adopt IPv6, which allows for the rapid growth of the Internet.

“We are grateful for the guidance we’ve received from the RIRs as the number of unallocated IPv4 addresses dwindles,” said Elise Gerich, Vice President of IANA and Technical Operations at ICANN. “This redistribution of the small pool of IPv4 addresses held by us ensures that every region receives an equal number of addresses while we continue to work with the community to raise support for IPv6.”

To handle this critical drop in the numbers available to LACNIC, the five RIRs’ policy making communities established a policy for the equal redistribution by ICANN. This is known as the allocation phase outlined in the Global Policy for Post Exhaustion IPv4 Allocation Mechanisms.

“The IANA IPv4 Recovered Address Space registry contained about 20 million IPv4 addresses earlier today and is now about half that size,” said Leo Vegoda, Operational Excellence Manager at ICANN. “Redistributing increasingly small blocks of IPv4 address space is not a sustainable way to grow the Internet. IPv6 deployment is a requirement for any network that needs to survive.”

IPv6 facilitates the exponential growth of the Internet by providing 340-undecillion unique addresses, compared to the 3.7 billion afforded by IPv4.

“To continue to fuel the economic growth and opportunity that is brought by the Internet, we are at the point where rapid adoption of IPv6 is a necessity to maintain that growth,” said Gerich.

A set of network protocol layers that work together. The OSI Reference Model that defines seven protocol layers is often called a stack, as is the set of TCP/IP protocols that define communication over the internet. The term stack also refers to the actual software that processes the protocols. So, for example, programmers sometimes talk about loading a stack, which means to load the software required to use a specific set of protocols. Another common phrase is binding a stack, which refers to linking a set of network protocols to a network interface card (NIC). Every NIC must have at least one stack bound to it.

Internet protocol stack provides a connection oriented reliable branch (TCP) and an connectionless unreliable branch (UDP) both build on top of the Internet Protocol. The Internet Protocol layer in the TCP/IP protocol stack is the first layer that introduces the virtual network abstraction that is the basic principle of the Internet model. All physical implementation details (ideally even though this is not quite true) are hidden below the IP layer. The IP layer provides an unreliable, connectionless delivery system. The reason why it is unreliable stem from the fact the protocol does not provide any functionality for error recovering for datagrams that are either duplicated, lost or arrive to the remote host in another order than they are send. If no such errors occur in the physical layer, the IP protocol guarantees that the transmission is terminated successfully.

The protocol stack is an implementation of a computer networking protocol suite. The terms are often used interchangeably. Strictly speaking, the suite is the definition of the protocols, and the stack is the software implementation of them. Individual protocols within a suite are often designed with a single purpose in mind. This modularization makes design and evaluation easier. Because each protocol module usually communicates with two others, they are commonly imagined as layers in a stack of protocols. The lowest protocol always deals with “low-level”, physical interaction of the hardware. Every higher layer adds more features. User applications usually deal only with the topmost layers (see also OSI model). In practical implementation, protocol stacks are often divided into three major sections: media, transport, and applications. A particular operating system or platform will often have two well-defined software interfaces: one between the media and transport layers, and one between the transport layers and applications. The media-to-transport interface defines how transport protocol software makes use of particular media and hardware types (“card drivers”). For example, this interface level would define how TCP/IP transport software would talk to Ethernet hardware. Examples of these interfaces include ODI and NDIS in the Microsoft Windows and DOS environment. The application-to-transport interface defines how application programs make use of the transport layers. For example, this interface level would define how a web browser program would talk to TCP/IP transport software. Examples of these interfaces include Berkeley sockets and System V STREAMS in the Unix world, and Winsock in the Microsoft world.

One could combine the two protocols to form a powerful third, mastering both cable and wireless transmission, but a different super-protocol would be needed for each possible combination of protocols. It is easier to leave the base protocols alone, and design a protocol that can work on top of any of them (the Internet Protocol is an example.) This will make two stacks of two protocols each. The inter-network protocol will communicate with each of the base protocol in their simpler language; the base protocols will not talk directly to each other.

The Protocol Stack

The Internet consists of many millions of computers on tens of thousands of networks. It is arguably the most complex system ever assembled by mankind. How can such a complex system function reliably, particularly when it grows several times larger every year? The answer is that the Internet is assembled from components that have been built by many manufacturers to a common set of standards. The most fundamental of these standards, the ones we consider in this book, relate to a basic set of functions that has been defined collectively by the networking industry. At the core of these functions isa set of rules for exchanging information. These rules are known as protocols.

Five-layer protocol stack

Application Layer: Responsible for whatever the user wants the computer to do, such as interacting with a remote computer, transferring files, or displaying graphics obtained over the World Wide Web (which we refer to in this book simply as the Web). This interaction is achieved by sending messages.

Transport Layer: Responsible for packaging data for host-to-host delivery. For long streams of data, this requires dividing the information into segments. This layer also provides a means to identify how messages are to be used in the receiving host in that a set of messages is associated with a particular application. In many cases, this layer also keeps track of information flow between sender and receiver (which can be anywhere in the network) so that no information is lost or presented to the receiving application layer out of order.

Network Layer: Responsible for putting the segments into “electronic envelopes” called packets and providing the organization necessary to get the packets from sender to receiver. This process involves providing a consistent means of addressing (locating) the sender and receiver as well as a workable means of routing the packets through the communications links, routers, and gateways of the Internet. With good routing, the packets will flow efficiently and will be moved to another path quickly if problems arise.

Data Link Control (DLC) Layer: Responsible for controlling operation of a single data communication link to move information efficiently from end to end, even though the link may be experiencing transmission errors. An important function of this layer is Medium Access Control (MAC), which allows multiple computers to share a single information channel, as shown in Figure 1.3. Other DLC functions include putting delimiters around the packet to make a frame, detecting (and possibly correcting) transmission errors, and controlling the rate at which the sender transmits so the receiver is not overwhelmed with data.

Physical Layer: Responsible for passing information between two physical locations. In its simplest form, the physical layer is a wire. In most cases, it is considerably more complex, being derived from a larger telecommunications system that supports a variety of uses (mostly commercial telephone service)

Initially the registration of domain names was free,subsidized by the National Science Foundation through IANA, but by 1992 a neworganization was needed to specifically handle the exponential increase in flow to the Internet. IANA and the NSF jointly created InterNIC, a quasi-governmental body mandated to organize and maintain the growing DNS registry and services.

1992 Internet Engineering Task Force Requests for Comments(RFCs) started as memoranda addressing the various protocols that facilitate the functioning of the Internet and were previously edited by the late Dr.Postel as part of his IANA functions. The IETF started in January 1985 as a quarterly meeting of U.S.government funded researchers. Representatives from non-government vendors were invited starting with the fourth IETF meeting in October of that year. In 1992,the Internet Society, a professional membership society, was formed and the IETF was transferred to operation under it as an independent international standards body.

Internet2 is a not-for-profit United States computer networking consortium led by members from the research and education communities, industry, and government. The Internet2 consortium administrative headquarters are located in Ann Arbor, Michigan, with offices in Washington, D.C. and Emeryville, California.

As of November 2013, Internet2 has over 500 members including 251 institutions of higher education, 9 partners and 76 members from industry, over 100 research and education networks or connector organizations, and 67 affiliate members.

Internet2 operates the Internet2 Network, an Internet Protocol network using optical fiber that delivers network services for research and education, and provides a secure network testing and research environment. In late 2007, Internet2 began operating its newest dynamic circuit network, the Internet2 DCN, an advanced technology that allows user-based allocation of data circuits over the fiber-optic network.

The Internet2 Network, through its regional network and connector members, connects over 60,000 U.S. educational, research, government and “community anchor” institutions, from primary and secondary schools to community colleges and universities, public libraries and museums to health care organizations.

The Internet2 community develops and deploys network technologies for the future of the Internet. These technologies include large-scale network performance measurement and management tools, secure identity and access management tools and capabilities such as scheduling high-bandwidth, high-performance circuits.

Internet2 members serve on several advisory councils, collaborate in a variety of working groups and special interest groups, gather at spring and fall member meetings, and are encouraged to participate in the strategic planning process.

History

As the Internet gained in public recognition and popularity, universities were among the first institutions to outgrow the Internet’s bandwidth limitations because of the data transfer requirements faced by academic researchers who needed to collaborate with their colleagues. Some universities wanted to support high-performance applications like data mining, medical imaging and particle physics. This resulted in the creation of the very-high-performance Backbone Network Service, or vBNS, developed in 1995 by the National Science Foundation (NSF) and MCI for supercomputers at educational institutions. After the expiration of the NSF agreement, vBNS largely transitioned to providing service to the government. As a result, the research and education community founded Internet2 to serve its networking needs.

The Internet2 Project was originally established by 34 university researchers in 1996 under the auspices of EDUCOM (later EDUCAUSE), and was formally organized as the not-for-profit University Corporation for Advanced Internet Development (UCAID) in 1997. It later changed its name to Internet2. Internet2 is a registered trademark.

The Internet2 community, in partnership with Qwest, built the first Internet2 Network, called Abilene, in 1998 and was a prime investor in the National LambdaRail (NLR) project. During 2004–2006, Internet2 and NLR held extensive discussions regarding a possible merger. Those talks paused in spring, 2006, resumed in March, 2007, but eventually ceased in the fall of 2007, due to unresolved differences.

In 2006, Internet2 announced a partnership with Level 3 Communications to launch a brand new nationwide network, boosting its capacity from 10 Gbit/s to 100 Gbit/s. In October, 2007, Internet2 officially retired Abilene and now refers to its new, higher capacity network as the Internet2 Network.

Internet2 provides the U.S. research and education community with a network that satisfies their bandwidth-intensive requirements. The network itself is a dynamic, robust and cost-effective hybrid optical and packet network. It furnishes a 100 Gbit/s network backbone to more than 210 U.S. educational institutions, 70 corporations and 45 non-profit and government agencies.

The uses of the network span from collaborative applications, distributed research experiments, grid-based data analysis to social networking. Some of these applications are in varying levels of commercialization, such as IPv6, open-source middleware for secure network access, Layer 2 VPNs and dynamic circuit networks.

Abilene Network

Abilene Network was a high-performance backbone network created by the Internet2 community in the late 1990s. In 2007 the Abilene Network was retired and the upgraded network became known as the “Internet2 Network”.

History

One of the aims of the Abilene project was to achieve 10 Gbit/s connectivity between every node by the end of 2006. Over 230 member institutions participated in Abilene, mostly universities and some corporate and affiliate institutions, in all of the US states as well as the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico. It connected to European research networks NORDUnet and SURFnet. The legal entity behind the network was the University Corporation for Advanced Internet Development.

When it was established in 1999, the network backbone had a capacity of 2.5 Gbit/s. An upgrade to 10 Gbit/s began in 2003 and was completed on February 4, 2004.

The name Abilene was chosen because of the project’s resemblance, in ambition and scope, to the railhead in Abilene, Kansas, which in the 1860s represented the frontier of the United States for the nation’s railroad infrastructure.

Abilene and Internet2 and the Internet2 Network

The media often incorrectly used the term “Internet2 Network” when referring to the “Abilene Network”. Some sources even suggest that Internet2 is a network wholly separate from the Internet. This is misleading, since, at the time of the Abilene Network, Internet2 was the consortium and not a computer network. It is possible that many news sources adopted the term Internet2 because it seems like a logical name for a next-generation Internet backbone. Articles that reference Internet2 as a network were in fact referring to the Abilene Network. Internet2 adopted the name Internet2 Network for its entire network infrastructure.

Abilene formed a high-speed backbone by deploying cutting edge technologies not yet generally available on the scale of a national network backbone. Abilene was a private network used for education and research, but was not entirely isolated, since its members usually provide alternative access to many of their resources through the public Internet.

Operations Center (NOC)

Abilene’s Network Operations Center (NOC) was hosted at Indiana University since its inception. “The cross-country backbone is 10 gigabits per second, with the goal of offering 100 megabits per second of connectivity between every Abilene connected desktop.”

2006/2007 Upgrade

The Abilene project had used optical fiber networks donated by Qwest Communications. In March 2006, Internet2 announced its upgrade plans and migration to Level 3 Communications. Internet2’s Abilene transport agreement with Qwest expired in October 2007. Unlike the previous architecture, Level 3 manages and operated an Infinera Networks based DWDM system devoted to Internet2. Internet2 has control over provisioning and uses the 40 wavelength capacity to provide IP backbone connectivity as well as transport for a new SONET-based dynamic provisioning network based on the Ciena Corporation CoreDirector platform. The IP network was based on the Juniper Networks T640 routing platform.

1974 December The term “internet” was adopted in the first RFC published on the TCP protocol (RFC 675: Internet Transmission Control Program, December 1974) as an abbreviation of the term internetworking and the two terms were used interchangeably. In general, an internet was any network using TCP/IP. It was around the time whenARPANET was interlinked with NSFNET in the late 1980s, that the term was used as the name of the network,Internet, being a large and global TCP/IP network. 1974 X.25 and public data networks. Based on ARPA’sresearch, packet switching network standards were developedby the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) in the form of X.25 and related standards. While using packet switching, X.25 is built on the concept ofvirtual circuits emulating traditional telephone connections. In 1974, X.25 formed the basis for the SERCnet network between British academic and researchsites, which later became JANET.

1975 July ARPANET to the federal wide area networks: MILNET,NSI, ESNet, CSNET, and NSFNET After the ARPANET had been up and running for several years, ARPA looked for another agency to hand off the network to; ARPA’s primary mission was funding cutting edge research and development, not running a communications utility. Eventually, in July 1975, the network hadbeen turned over to the Defense Communications Agency, also part of the Department of Defense. 1977 November 22nd TCP/IP With the role of the network reduced to the bare minimum, it became possible to joinalmost any networks together, no matter what their characteristics were, thereby solving Kahn’s initial problem.

DARPA agreed to fund development of prototype software,and after several years of work, the first some whatcrude demonstration of a gateway between the Packet Radio network in the SF Bay area and the ARPANET was conducted. On November 22, 1977 a three network demonstration was conducted including the ARPANET, the Packet RadioNetwork and the Atlantic Packet Satellite network—all sponsored by DARPA. 1976 March x.25. The initial ITU Standard on X.25 was approved in March 1976 1978 x.25 The British Post Office, Western Union International and Tymnet collaborated to create the first international packet switched network, referred to as the International Packet Switched Service(IPSS), in 1978.

1979 x.25 In 1979,CompuServe became the first service to offer electronic mail capabilities and technical support to personal computer users. The company broke new ground again in 1980 as the first to offer real-time chat with its CB Simulator. Othermajor dial-in networks were America Online (AOL) and Prodigy that also provided communications, content, and entertainment features. Many bulletin board system (BBS) networks also provided on-line access, such as FidoNet which was popular amongst hobbyist computer users, many of them hackers and amateur radio operators. 1979 The new Internet continued to grow throughout the 70’swith the creation of electronic mail (e-mail) and newsgroups.

1979 UUCP and Usenet In 1979, two students at DukeUniversity, Tom Truscott and Jim Ellis, came up with the idea of using simple Bourne shell scripts to transfer news and messages on a serial line UUCPconnection with nearby University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Following public release of the software, the mesh of UUCP hosts forwarding on the Usenet news rapidly expanded. UUCPnet, as it would later be named, also created gateways and links between FidoNet and dial-up BBS hosts. UUCP networks spread quickly due to the lower costs involved,ability to use existing leased lines,X.25 links or even ARPANET connections, and the lack of strict use policies(commercial organizations who might provide bug fixes) compared to later networks like CSnet and Bitnet. All connects were local

More than five million domain names were added to the Internet in the second quarter of 2011, bringing the total number of registered domain names to more than 215 million worldwide across all domains, according to the latest Domain Name Industry Brief, published by VeriSign, Inc., the trusted provider of Internet infrastructure services for the networked world.

The increase of 5.2 million domain names marks a growth rate of 2.5 percent over the first quarter. Registrations have grown by more than 16.9 million, or 8.6 percent, since the second quarter of 2010.

The .com and .net Top Level Domains (TLDs) experienced aggregate growth, surpassing a combined total of 110 million names in the second quarter of 2011. This represents a 1.8 percent increase in the base over the first quarter of 2011 and an 8.3 percent increase over the same quarter in 2010. New .com and .net registrations totaled 8.1 million during the quarter. This reflects a 2.0 percent increase year over year in new registrations.

The top TLDs in terms of registrations remained largely unchanged between Q1 and Q2. The only change in the order was .cn (China) moving up one slot to become the world’s eighth largest TLD, and .eu (European Union) dropping one slot to become ninth largest. Taken together, country-code TLDs (ccTLDs) worldwide added a total of 2.9 million names in the second quarter.

Verisign’s average daily Domain Name System (DNS) query load during the quarter was 56 billion, with a peak of 68 billion. Compared to the previous quarter, the daily average declined 1 percent and the peak grew 1 percent.

Domain Brief Spotlights Small Businesses, New gTLDs

The latest issue of the Domain Name Industry Brief also focuses on some of the unique cybersecurity challenges facing small and mid-sized businesses (SMBs), and some of the solutions that are available to those companies. In addition, it contains an update on the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) plan to introduce new generic TLDs (gTLDs).

The SMB section of the Domain Name Industry Brief focuses on how cybersecurity efforts in small and mid-sized businesses have failed to keep pace with rising threats against those very companies. As larger enterprises improve their defenses and make cybersecurity a larger priority, SMBs have become even more attractive to cyber-criminals looking for easy, and profitable, targets.

The brief outlines a combination of common sense security procedures and smart investments in security technology and services that can help SMBs protect themselves and their customers.

On the new gTLD front, the brief touches on ICANN’s decision to approve the creation of potentially hundreds of new gTLDs in the near future, and discusses what that means for potential applicants, brand owners, domain name registrants and ordinary Internet users worldwide.

Verisign publishes the Domain Name Industry Brief to provide Internet users throughout the world with significant statistical and analytical research and data on the domain name industry and the Internet as a whole.

Intel Corporation (also known as Intel and stylized as intel) is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Santa Clara, California. It is one of the world’s largest and highest valued semiconductor chip makers based on revenue., and is the inventor of the x86 series of microprocessors, the processors found in most personal computers (PCs). Intel supplies processors for computer system manufacturers such as Apple Inc., Lenovo, HP and Dell. Intel also manufactures motherboard chipsets, network interface controllers and integrated circuits, flash memory, graphics chips, embedded processors and other devices related to communications and computing. Intel Corporation was founded on July 18, 1968 by semiconductor pioneers Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore, and widely associated with the executive leadership and vision of Andrew Grove. The company’s name was conceived as portmanteau of the words integrated and electronics. The fact that “intel” is the term for intelligence information also made the name appropriate. Intel was an early developer of SRAM and DRAM memory chips, which represented the majority of its business until 1981. Although Intel created the world’s first commercial microprocessor chip in 1971, it was not until the success of the personal computer (PC) that this became its primary business. During the 1990s, Intel invested heavily in new microprocessor designs fostering the rapid growth of the computer industry. During this period Intel became the dominant supplier of microprocessors for PCs, and was known for aggressive and anti-competitive tactics in defense of its market position, particularly against Advanced Micro Devices (AMD), as well as a struggle with Microsoft for control over the direction of the PC industry.

Intel was placed at #56 on the 2015 rankings of the world’s most valuable brands published by Millward Brown Optimor. The Open Source Technology Center at Intel hosts PowerTOP and LatencyTOP, and supports other open-source projects such as Wayland, Intel Array Building Blocks, Threading Building.

Origins

Intel was founded in Mountain View, California in 1968 by Gordon E. Moore (of “Moore’s Law” fame), a chemist, and Robert Noyce, a physicist and co-inventor of the integrated circuit. Arthur Rock (investor and venture capitalist) helped them find investors, while Max Palevsky was on the board from an early stage. Moore and Noyce had left Fairchild Semiconductor to found Intel. Rock was not an employee, but he was an investor and was chairman of the board. The total initial investment in Intel was $2.5 million convertible debentures and $10,000 from Rock. Just 2 years later, Intel became a public company via an initial public offering (IPO), raising $6.8 million ($23.50 per share). Intel’s third employee was Andy Grove, a chemical engineer, who later ran the company through much of the 1980s and the high-growth 1990s.

In deciding on a name, Moore and Noyce quickly rejected “Moore Noyce”, homophone for “more noise” – an ill-suited name for an electronics company, since noise in electronics is usually very undesirable and typically associated with bad interference. Instead they used the name NM Electronics before renaming their company Integrated Electronics or “Intel” for short.  Since “Intel” was already trademarked by the hotel chain Intelco, they had to buy the rights for the name.

Early history

At its founding, Intel was distinguished by its ability to make semiconductors. Its first product, in 1969, was the 3101 Schottky TTL bipolar 64-bit static random-access memory (SRAM), which was nearly twice as fast as earlier Schottky diode implementations by Fairchild and the Electrotechnical Laboratory in Tsukuba, Japan. In the same year Intel also produced the 3301 Schottky bipolar 1024-bit read-only memory (ROM) and the first commercial metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) silicon gate SRAM chip, the 256-bit 1101. Intel’s business grew during the 1970s as it expanded and improved its manufacturing processes and produced a wider range of products, still dominated by various memory devices.

While Intel created the first commercially available microprocessor (Intel 4004) in 1971 and one of the first microcomputers in 1972, by the early 1980s its business was dominated by dynamic random-access memory chips. However, increased competition from Japanese semiconductor manufacturers had, by 1983, dramatically reduced the profitability of this market. The growing success of the IBM personal computer, based on an Intel microprocessor, was among factors that convinced Gordon Moore (CEO since 1975) to shift the company’s focus to microprocessors, and to change fundamental aspects of that business model. Moore’s decision to sole-source Intel’s 386 chip played into the company’s continuing success.

By the end of the 1980s, buoyed by its fortuitous position as microprocessor supplier to IBM and IBM’s competitors within the rapidly growing personal computer market, Intel embarked on a 10-year period of unprecedented growth as the primary (and most profitable) hardware supplier to the PC industry, part of the winning ‘Wintel’ combination. Moore handed over to Andy Grove in 1987. By launching its Intel Inside marketing campaign in 1991, Intel was able to associate brand loyalty with consumer selection, so that by the end of the 1990s, its line of Pentium processors had become a household name.

Slowing demand and challenges to dominance in 2000

After 2000, growth in demand for high-end microprocessors slowed. Competitors, notably AMD (Intel’s largest competitor in its primary x86 architecture market), garnered significant market share, initially in low-end and mid-range processors but ultimately across the product range, and Intel’s dominant position in its core market was greatly reduced. In the early 2000s then-CEO Craig Barrett attempted to diversify the company’s business beyond semiconductors, but few of these activities were ultimately successful.

Expansions (2008–2011)

In 2008, Intel spun off key assets of a solar startup business effort to form an independent company, SpectraWatt Inc. In 2011, SpectraWatt filed for bankruptcy.In February 2011, Intel began to build a new microprocessor manufacturing facility in Chandler, Arizona, completed in 2013 at a cost of $5 billion. The building was never used. The company produces three-quarters of its products in the United States, although three-quarters of its revenue comes from overseas. In April 2011, Intel began a pilot project with ZTE Corporation to produce smartphones using the Intel Atom processor for China’s domestic market. In December 2011, Intel announced that it reorganized several of its business units into a new mobile and communications group be responsible for the company’s smartphone, tablet and wireless efforts.

The Internet Movie Database (abbreviated IMDb) is an online database of information related to films, television programs and video games, including cast, production crew, fictional characters, biographies, plot summaries, trivia and reviews. Actors and crew can post their own résumé and upload photos of themselves for a yearly fee. U.S. users can view over 6,000 movies and television shows from CBS, Sony, and various independent filmmakers.

Launched in 1990 by professional computer programmer Col Needham, the company was incorporated in the UK as Internet Movie Database Ltd in 1996 with revenue generated through advertising, licensing and partnerships. In 1998 it became a subsidiary of Amazon.com, who were then able to use it as an advertising resource for selling DVDs and videotapes.

As of September 2016, IMDb has approximately 3.9 million titles (including episodes) and 7.4 million personalities in its database, as well as 67 million registered users. It is ranked 58 in Alexa Top Global sites ranking.

The site enables registered users to submit new material and request edits to existing entries. Although all data is checked before going live, the system has been open to abuse and occasional errors are acknowledged. Users are also invited to rate any film on a scale of 1 to 10, and the totals are converted into a weighted mean-rating that is displayed beside each title, with online filters employed to deter ballot-stuffing. The site also features message boards which stimulate regular debates among authenticated users.

History

IMDb originated with a Usenet posting by British film fan and professional computer programmer Col Needham entitled “Those Eyes”, about actresses with beautiful eyes. Others with similar interests soon responded with additions or different lists of their own. Needham subsequently started a (male) “Actors List”, while Dave Knight began a “Directors List”, and Andy Krieg took over “THE LIST” from Hank Driskill, which would later be renamed the “Actress List”. Both lists had been restricted to people who were alive and working, but soon retired people were added, so Needham started what was then (but did not remain) a separate “Dead Actors/Actresses List”. The goal of the participants now was to make the lists as inclusive as possible.

By late 1990, the lists included almost 10,000 movies and television series correlated with actors and actresses appearing therein. On October 17, 1990, Needham developed and posted a collection of Unix shell scripts which could be used to search the four lists, and thus the database that would become the IMDb was born. At the time, it was known as the “rec.arts.movies movie database”, but by 1993 had been moved out of the Usenet group as an independent website underwritten and controlled by Needham and personal followers. Other website users were invited to contribute data which they may have collected and verified, on a volunteer basis, which greatly increased the amount and types of data to be stored. Entire new sections were added.

Other demographic data, full production crews, uncredited performers were also added as the site grew. Needham’s group allowed some advertising to support ongoing operations of the site, including the hiring of full-time paid data managers. All the primary staff came (and still come) from the burgeoning computer industry and/or training schools and did not have extensive expertise in visual media.[citation needed] In 1998, unable to secure sufficient funding from limited advertising, contributions and unable to raise support from the visual media industries or academia, where Needham ultimately sold the IMDb.com site to Amazon.com, on condition that its operation would remain in the hands of Needham and his small cadre of managers, who soon were able to move into full-time paid staff positions.

On the web

The database had been expanded to include additional categories of filmmakers and other demographic material, as well as trivia, biographies, and plot summaries. The movie ratings had been properly integrated with the list data and a centralized email interface for querying the database had been created by Alan Jay. Later in 1993 it moved onto the World Wide Web (a network in its infancy at that time) under the name of Cardiff Internet Movie Database. The database resided on the servers of the computer science department of Cardiff University in Wales. Rob Hartill was the original web interface author. In 1994 the email interface was revised to accept the submission of all information meaning that people no longer had to email the specific list maintainer with their updates. However, the structure remained that information received on a single film was divided among multiple section managers, the sections being defined and determined by categories of film personnel and the individual filmographies contained therein. Over the next few years, the database was run on a network of mirrors across the world with donated bandwidth.

The website is Perl-based. As of May 2011, the site has been filtered in China for more than one year, although many users address it through proxy server or by VPN.

On October 17, 2010, IMDb launched original video (www.imdb.com/20) in celebration of its 20th anniversary.

As an independent company

In 1996 IMDb was incorporated in the United Kingdom, becoming the Internet Movie Database Ltd. Founder Col Needham became the primary owner as well as the figurehead. General revenue for site operations was generated through advertising, licensing and partnerships.

As Amazon.com subsidiary (1998–present)

In 1998, Jeff Bezos, founder, owner and CEO of Amazon.com, struck a deal with Col Needham and other principal shareholders to buy IMDb outright for approximately $55 million and attach it to Amazon as a subsidiary, private company.[8] This gave IMDb the ability to pay the shareholders salaries for their work, while Amazon.com would be able to use IMDb as an advertising resource for selling DVDs and videotapes.

IMDb continued to expand its functionality. On January 15, 2002, it added a subscription service known as IMDbPro, aimed at entertainment professionals. IMDbPro was announced and launched at the 2002 Sundance Film Festival. It provides a variety of services including film production and box office details, as well as a company directory.

As an additional incentive for users, as of 2003, users identified as one of “the top 100 contributors” of hard data received complimentary free access to IMDbPro for the following calendar year; for 2006 this was increased to the top 150 contributors, and for 2010 to the top 250. In 2008 IMDb launched their first official foreign language version with the German IMDb.de. Also in 2008, IMDb acquired two other companies, Withoutabox and Box Office Mojo.

Data provided by subjects

In 2006, IMDb introduced its “Résumé Subscription Service”, where actors and crew can post their own résumé and upload photos of themselves for a yearly fee. The base annual charge for including a photo with an account was $39.95 until 2010, when it was increased to $54.95. IMDb résumé pages are kept on a sub-page of the regular entry about that person, with a regular entry automatically created for each résumé subscriber who does not already have one.

As of 2012, Resume Services is now included as part of an IMDbPro subscription, and is no longer offered as a separate subscription service.

Copyright, vandalism and error issues

All volunteers who contribute content to the database technically retain copyright on their contributions but the compilation of the content becomes the exclusive property of IMDb with the full right to copy, modify, and sublicense it and they are verified before posting. Credit is not given on specific title or filmography pages to the contributor(s) who have provided information. Conversely, a credited text entry, such as a plot summary, may be corrected for content, grammar, sentence structure, perceived omission or error, by other contributors without having to add their names as co-authors. Due to the process of having the submitted data or text reviewed by a section manager, IMDb is different from database projects like Wikipedia, Discogs or OpenStreetMap in that contributors cannot add, delete, or modify the data or text on impulse, and the manipulation of data is controlled by IMDb technology and salaried staff. IMDb has been subject to deliberate additions of false information; in 2012 a spokesperson said: “We make it easy for users and professionals to update much of our content, which is why we have an ‘edit page.’ The data that is submitted goes through a series of consistency checks before it goes live. Given the sheer volume of the information, occasional mistakes are inevitable, and, when reported, they are promptly fixed. We always welcome corrections.”

The Java Movie Database (JMDB) is reportedly creating an IMDb_Error.log file that lists all the errors found while processing the IMDb plain text files. A Wiki alternative to IMDb is Open Media Database whose content is also contributed by users but licensed under CC-by and the GFDL. Since 2007, IMDb has been experimenting with wiki-programmed sections for complete film synopses, parental guides, and FAQs about titles as determined by  individual contributors.

Data format and access

IMDb does not provide an API for automated queries. However, most of the data can be downloaded as compressed plain text files and the information can be extracted using the command-line interface tools provided. Beside that there is the Java-based graphical user interface (GUI) application available which is able to process the compressed plain text files and allow to search and display the information. This GUI application supports different languages but the movie related data is in English, as made available by IMDb. A Python package called IMDbPY can also be used to process the compressed plain text files into a number of different SQL databases, enabling easier access to the entire dataset for searching or data mining.

Litigation

In 2011, in the case of Hoang v. Amazon.com, IMDb was sued by an anonymous actress for more than US$1,000,000 due to IMDb’s revealing her age (40, at the time). The actress claimed that revealing her age could cause her to lose acting opportunities. Judge Marsha J. Pechman, a U.S. district judge in Seattle, dismissed the lawsuit, saying the actress had no grounds to proceed with an anonymous complaint. The actress re-filed and so revealed that the complainant is Huong Hoang of Texas, who uses the stage name Junie Hoang. In 2013, Pechman dismissed all causes of action except for a breach of contract claim against IMDb; a jury then sided with IMDb on that claim. As of February 2015, an appeal was filed. All claims against IMDB were dismissed by the court in March 2015, handing Hoang zero damages.

Also in 2011, in the case of United Video Properties Inc., et al. v. Amazon.Com Inc. et al., IMDb and Amazon were sued by Rovi Corporation and others for patent infringement over their various program listing offerings. The patent claims were ultimately construed in a way favorable to IMDb and Rovi/United Video Properties lost the case, though as of November 2014 it is on appeal.

On September 24, 2016, Governor Jerry Brown of California signed anti-ageism bill AB-1687 into law, which was primarily targeted at IMDb. This came after several months of intensive lobbying by SAG-AFTRA, Transchrono Awareness and others. It also followed at 2011 ageism lawsuit against IMDB that the latter won. The bill forces IMDb to comply with requests by the actors featured on its pages to remove information about their age.

Internet Engineering Task Force Requests for Comments (RFCs) started as memoranda addressing the various protocols that facilitate the functioning of the Internet and were previously edited by the late Dr. Postel aspart of his IANA functions. The IETF started in January1985 as a quarterly meeting of U.S. government funded researchers. Representatives from non-government vendors were invited starting with the fourth IETF meeting inOctober of that year. In 1992, the Internet Society, a professional membership society, was formed and the IETF was transferred to operation under it as an independent international standards body.

When generic top-level domains were first implemented, in January 1985, there were six: .com .edu .gov .mil .net .org  While .net wasnot listed in the original RFC document describing the domain name system, it was added by the time the first group of names were implemented. The .com,.net, and .org gTLDs, despite their original different uses, are now in practice open for use by anybody for any purpose. 1986 NPL replaced Donald Davies of the National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom) proposed anational data network based on packet-switching. The proposal was not taken up nationally, but by 1970 he had designed and built the Mark I packet-switched network to meet the needs of the multi disciplinary laboratory and prove the technology under operational conditions. By 1976 12 computers and 75 terminal devices were attached and more were added until the network was replaced in 1986.

In 1981 NSF supported the development ofthe Computer Science Network (CSNET). CSNET connected with ARPANET usingTCP/IP, and ran TCP/IP over X.25, but it also supported departments without sophisticated network connections, using automated dial-up mail exchange. Itsexperience with CSNET lead NSF to use TCP/IP when it created NSFNET, a 56kbit/s backbone established in 1986, that connected the NSF supported super computing centers and regional research and education networks in theUnited States. However, use of NSFNET was not limited to supercomputer users and the 56 kbit/s network quickly became overloaded. NSFNET was upgraded to 1.5Mbit/s in 1988. The existence of NSFNET and the creation of Federal Internet Exchanges (FIXes) allowed the ARPANET to be decommissioned in 1990. NSFNET was expanded and upgraded to 45 Mbit/s in 1991, and was decommissioned in 1995 whenit was replaced by back bones operated by several commercial Internet Service Providers.

Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation (NSF) developed the Computer Science Network (CSNET) and again in 1986 when NSFNET provided access to supercomputer sites inthe United States from research and education organizations. Commercial internet service providers (ISPs) began to emerge in the late 1980s and 1990s. TheARPANET was decommissioned in 1990. The Internet was commercialized in 1995 when NSFNET was decommissioned, removing the last restrictions on the use ofthe Internet to carry commercial traffic.

IEEE 802.11b-1999 or 802.11b, is an amendment to the IEEE 802.11 wireless networking specification that extends throughput up to 11 Mbit/s using the same 2.4GHz band. A related amendment was incorporated into the IEEE 802.11-2007 standard.

802.11 is a set of IEEE standards that govern wireless networking transmission methods. They are commonly used today in their 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, 802.11n and 802.11ac versions to provide wireless connectivity in the home, office and some commercial establishments.

Description

802.11b has a maximum raw data rate of 11 Mbit/s and uses the same CSMA/CA media access method defined in the original standard. Due to the CSMA/CA protocol overhead, in practice the maximum 802.11b throughput that an application can achieve is about 5.9 Mbit/s using TCP and 7.1 Mbit/s using UDP.

802.11b products appeared on the market in mid-1999, since 802.11b is a direct extension of the DSSS (Direct-sequence spread spectrum) modulation technique defined in the original standard. The Apple iBook was the first mainstream computer sold with optional 802.11b networking. Technically, the 802.11b standard uses Complementary code keying (CCK) as its modulation technique. The dramatic increase in throughput of 802.11b (compared to the original standard) along with simultaneous substantial price reductions led to the rapid acceptance of 802.11b as the definitive wireless LAN technology.

802.11b devices suffer interference from other products operating in the 2.4 GHz band. Devices operating in the 2.4 GHz range include: microwave ovens, Bluetooth devices, baby monitors and cordless telephones. Interference issues and user density problems within the 2.4 GHz band have become a major concern and frustration for users.

Range

802.11b is used in a point-to-multipoint configuration, wherein an access point communicates via an omnidirectional antenna with mobile clients within the range of the access point. Typical range depends on the radio frequency environment, output power and sensitivity of the receiver. Allowable bandwidth is shared across clients in discrete channels. A directional antenna focuses output power into a smaller field which increases point-to-point range. Designers of such installations who wish to remain within the law must however be careful about legal limitations on effective radiated power.

Some 802.11b cards operate at 11 Mbit/s, but scale back to 5.5, then to 2, then to 1 Mbit/s (also known as Adaptive Rate Selection) in order to decrease the rate of re-broadcasts that result from errors.

ICANN started to accept applications for IDNccTLDs in November 2009, and installed the first set into the Domain Names System in May 2010. The first set was a group of Arabic names for the countries of Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. By May 2010, 21 countries had submitted applications to ICANN, representing 11 scripts. An internationalized country code top-level domain (IDN ccTLD) is a top-leveldomain with a specially encoded domain name that is displayed in an end user application, such as a web browser, in its language-native script or alphabet,such as the Arabic alphabet, or a non-alphabetic writing system, such as Chinese characters. IDN ccTLDs are an application of the internationalized domain name(IDN) system to top-level Internet domains assigned to countries, or independent geographic regions.

In December 2009 there were 192 million domain names

Several organizations post market-share-ranked lists of domain name registrars and numbers of domains registered at each. The published lists differ in which top-level domains (TLDs) they use; in the frequency of updates; and in whether their basic data is absolute numbers provided by registries, or daily changes derived from Zone files. The lists appear to all use at most 16 publicly available generic TLDs (gTLDs) that existed as of December 2009, plus.us. A February 2010 ICANN zone file access concept paper explains that most country code TLD (ccTLD) registries stopped providing zone files in 2003,citing abuse.

Google Adwords now allows Internationalized domain names.

If you write your ads in any language other than English, you may have wished that you could make your display URL consistent with the rest of your ad by showing your internationalized domain name. Today, we’re announcing that we now support non-ASCII characters, including non-Latin characters and Latin characters with accents and diacritics, in display and destination URLs.

When you create an ad in AdWords, you can now enter Unicode characters in the display and destination URL fields. To ensure that users will be able to reach your site, we’ll verify that the URL works properly in both Unicode and Punycode.

We also want to make sure that users are not shown URLs in any language other than their own, so we’ll render the display URL in Unicode characters only if its language matches the user’s Google interface language. In all other cases, it’ll be shown in Punycode.

Remember that all of our AdWords policies regarding display and destination URLs still apply. In particular, the domain of the display and destination URLs must match, so if you use non-ASCII characters in the display URL, make sure to do the same in the destination URL.

An internationalized domain name (IDN) is an Internet domain name that contains at least one label that is displayed in software applications, in whole or in part, in a language-specific script or alphabet, such as Arabic, Chinese, Cyrillic, Tamil, Hebrew or the Latin alphabet-based characters with diacritics or ligatures, such as French. These writing systems are encoded by computers in multi-byte Unicode. Internationalized domain names are stored in the Domain Name System as ASCII strings using Punycode transcription.

The Domain Name System, which performs a lookup service to translate user-friendly names into network addresses for locating Internet resources, is restricted in practice to the use of ASCII characters, a practical limitation that initially set the standard for acceptable domain names. The internationalization of domain names is a technical solution to translate names written in language-native scripts into an ASCII text representation that is compatible with the Domain Name System. Internationalized domain names can only be used with applications that are specifically designed for such use; they require no changes in the infrastructure of the Internet.

IDN was originally proposed in December 1996 by Martin Dürst and implemented in 1998 by Tan Juay Kwang and Leong Kok Yong under the guidance of Tan Tin Wee. After much debate and many competing proposals, a system called Internationalizing Domain Names in Applications (IDNA) was adopted as a standard, and has been implemented in several top-level domains.

In IDNA, the term internationalized domain name means specifically any domain name consisting only of labels to which the IDNA ToASCII algorithm can be successfully applied. In March 2008, the IETF formed a new IDN working group to update the current IDNA protocol.

In October 2009, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) approved the creation of internationalized country code top-level domains (IDN ccTLDs) in the Internet that use the IDNA standard for native language scripts. In May 2010 the first IDN ccTLD were installed in the DNS root zone.

Internationalizing Domain Names in Applications

Internationalizing Domain Names in Applications (IDNA) is a mechanism defined in 2003 for handling internationalized domain names containing non-ASCII characters. These names either are Latin letters with diacritics (ñ, é) or are written in languages or scripts which do not use the Latin alphabet: Arabic, Hangul, Hiragana and Kanji for instance. Although the Domain Name System supports non-ASCII characters, applications such as e-mail and web browsers restrict the characters which can be used as domain names for purposes such as a hostname. Strictly speaking it is the network protocols these applications use that have restrictions on the characters which can be used in domain names, not the applications that have these limitations or the DNS itself. To retain backwards compatibility with the installed base the IETF IDNA Working Group decided that internationalized domain names should be converted to a suitable ASCII-based form that could be handled by web browsers and other user applications. IDNA specifies how this conversion between names written in non-ASCII characters and their ASCII-based representation is performed.

An IDNA-enabled application is able to convert between the internationalized and ASCII representations of a domain name. It uses the ASCII form for DNS lookups but can present the internationalized form to users who presumably prefer to read and write domain names in non-ASCII scripts such as Arabic or Hiragana. Applications that do not support IDNA will not be able to handle domain names with non-ASCII characters, but will still be able to access such domains if given the (usually rather cryptic) ASCII equivalent.

ICANN issued guidelines for the use of IDNA in June 2003, and it was already possible to register .jp domains using this system in July 2003 and .info domains in March 2004. Several other top-level domain registries started accepting registrations in 2004 and 2005. IDN Guidelines were first created in June 2003, and have been updated to respond to phishing concerns in November 2005. An ICANN working group focused on country code domain names at the top level was formed in November 2007 and promoted jointly by the country code supporting organization and the Governmental Advisory Committee.

Mozilla 1.4, Netscape 7.1, Opera 7.11 were among the first applications to support IDNA. A browser plugin is available for Internet Explorer 6 to provide IDN support. Internet Explorer 7.0 and Windows Vista’s URL APIs provide native support for IDN.

Top-level domain implementation

In 2009, ICANN decided to implement a new class of top-level domains, assignable to countries and independent regions, similar to the rules for country code top-level domains. However, the domain names may be any desirable string of characters, symbols, or glyphs in the language-specific, non-Latin alphabet or script of the applicant’s language, within certain guidelines to assure sufficient visual uniqueness.

The process of installing IDN country code domains began with a long period of testing in a set of subdomains in the test top-level domain. Eleven domains used language-native scripts or alphabets, such as δοκιμή, meaning test in Greek.

These efforts culminated in the creation of the first internationalized country code top-level domains (IDN ccTLDs) for production use in 2010.

In the Domain Name System, these domains use an ASCII representation consisting of the prefix xn-- followed by the Punycode translation of the Unicode representation of the language-specific alphabet or script glyphs. For example, the Cyrillic name of Russia’s IDN ccTLD is рф. In Punycode representation, this is p1ai, and its DNS name is xn--p1ai.

Top-level domains accepting IDN registration

Many top-level domains have started to accept internationalized domain name registrations at the second or lower levels.

DotAsia, the registrar for the TLD Asia, conducted a 70-day sunrise period starting May 11, 2011 for second-level domain registrations in the Chinese, Japanese and Korean scripts.

In 1998 both IANA and Inter NIC were reorganized under the control of ICANN, a California non-profit corporation contracted by the United States Department of Commerce to manage a number of Internet-related tasks. The role of operating the DNS system was privatized and opened up to competition, while the central management of name allocations would be awarded on a contract tender basis.

1998 By August 2001, the directory model had begun to give way to search engines, tracking the rise of Google (founded 1998), which had developed new approaches to relevancy ranking. Directory features, while still commonly available, became after-thoughts to search engines.

1998 January 30th The original mandate for ICANN came from the United States government, spanning the presidential administrations of both Bill Clinton and George W. Bush. On January 30, 1998, the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA), an agency of the U.S. Department of Commerce, issued for comment, “A Proposal to Improve the Technical Management of Internet Names and Addresses.” The proposed rule making, or”Green Paper”, was published in the Federal Register on February 20,1998, providing opportunity for public comment. NTIA received more than 650 comments as of March 23, 1998, when the comment period closed.The Green Paper proposed certain actions designed to privatize the management of Internet names and addresses in a manner that allows for the development of robust competition and facilitates global participation in Internet management. The Green Paper proposed for discussion a variety of issues relating to DNS management including private sector creation of a new not-for-profit corporation (the “newcorporation”) managed by a globally and functionally representative Board of Directors. ICANN was formed in response to this policy. The IANA function currently exists under an agreement with the U.S. Department of Commerce. 1998 The next wave in the evolution of theDNSoccurred in 1998 when the U.S. Department of Commerce published the ‘WhitePaper’. This document outlined the transition of management of domain name systems to private organizations, allowing for increased competition. ICANN and the spirit of the Internet.

1998 That same year, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers was formed. This non-profit, private sector corporation formed by a broad coalition of the Internet’s business, technical, and academic interests worldwide is recognized as the “global consensus entity to coordinate the technical management of the Internet’s domain name system, the allocation of IP address space, the assignment of protocol parameters, and the management of the root server system. “One of ICANN’s primary concerns is to foster a greater spirit of competition within the domain registration industry. Where before there was only a single entity offering registration services, ICANN has now accredited a number of other companies to add to the global domain name database. This is called the Shared Registration System.

1998 August sold Altavista.com for $3.3 million in August1998

1998 September 18th The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) is anon-profit corporationheadquartered in Marina del Rey, California,United States, that was created on September 18, 1998, and incorporated on September 30, 1998 to oversee a number of Internet-related tasks previously performed directly on behalf of the U.S. government by other organizations, notably the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA).

1998 September 30th ICANN incorporated on September 30, 1998

1998 September In September 1998, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) was created to take over the task of managing domain names. After a call for proposals (August 15, 2000) and a brief period of public consultation, ICANN announced on November 16, 2000 its selection of the following seven new TLDs: aero, biz, coop, info,museum, name,pro. October 1998 In October 1998, following pressure from the growing domain name registration business and other interested parties, NSI’s agreement with the United States Department of Commerce was amended. This amendment required the creation of a shared registration system that supported multiple registrars. This system officially commenced service on November 30,1999 under the supervision of Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers(ICANN), although there had been several tested registrars using the system since March 11, 1999. Sincethen, over 500 registrars have entered the market for domain name registration services.

1999 Until 1999, Network Solutions (NSI) operated the com,net, and org registries. In addition to the functionof domain name registry operator, it was also the sole registrar for these domains. However, several companieshad developed independent registrar services. One such company,NetNames, developed in 1996 the concept of a standalone commercial domain name registration service to sell to the public domain registration and other associated services. This effectively created the retail model into the industry and assigning a wholesale role to the registries. NSI assimilated this model, which ultimately led to the separation of registry and registrar functions.

1999 The original DNS protocol had limited provisions for extension with new features. In 1999, Paul Vixie published in RFC 2671 an extension mechanism, called Extension mechanisms for DNS (EDNS) that introduced optionalprotocol elements without increasing overhead when not in use. This was accomplished through the OPT pseudo-resource record that only exists in wire transmissions of the protocol, but not in any zone files. Initial extensions were also suggested (EDNS0), such as increasing the DNS message size in UDP data grams.

The following companies have been accredited by ICANN to act as registrars in one or more generic top-level domains (gTLDs). The RAA (Registrar Accreditation Agreement) version indicated after each registrar name designates which contract the registrar has signed with ICANN.

The 2013 RAA is the most current contract governing the registrar relationship with ICANN. The 2013 RAA provides enhanced protections for registrants and an increased level of accountability for registrars, including but not limited to added registrar posting requirements, added compliance enforcement tools, and increased accountability to third parties. Prospective registrants may want to take this fact into account when selecting a registrar for their gTLD name(s).

Registrars who are covered by the 2009 RAA are obligated to follow many provisions that safeguard registrants, but they will not be able to offer as many generic top level domains in the future.

The RAA version is not an indication of how long the registrar has been ICANN accredited.

! #1 Host Australia, Inc.          United States

! #1 Host Canada, Inc.            United States

! #1 Host China, Inc.               United States

! #1 Host Germany, Inc.         United States

! #1 Host Israel, Inc.               Hong Kong

! #1 Host Japan, Inc.               United States

! #1 Host Korea, Inc.               United States

!#No1Registrar, LLC                Israel

#1 Internet Services International, Inc. dba 1ISI    United States

$$$ Private Label Internet Service Kiosk, Inc. (dba “PLISK.com”)          United States

007Names, Inc.       United States

0101 Internet, Inc.  Hong Kong

1 Domain Source Ltd. dba Domain One Source, Inc.             United States

1&1 Internet SE      Germany

101domain Discovery Limited                Ireland

101domain GRS Limited        Ireland

10dencehispahard, S.L.           Spain

123-Reg Limited     United Kingdom

123domainrenewals, LLC       United States

1800-website, LLC  United States

1API GmbH             Germany

1st-for-domain-names, LLC    United States

2030138 Ontario Inc. dba NamesBeyond.com and dba GoodLuckDomain.com   United States

22net, Inc.               China

24x7domains, LLC   United States

35 Technology Co., Ltd.           China

4X            France

995discountdomains, LLC       United States

Aahwed, Inc.           United States

AB Name ISP          Sweden

AB RIKTAD              Sweden

Abansys & Hostytec, S.L.        Spain

Aboss Technology Limited      China

Above.com Pty Ltd. Australia

Abraham Lincoln, LLC             United States

Abu-Ghazaleh Intellectual Property dba TAGIdomains.com Jordan

AccentDomains LLC                United States

Acens Technologies, S.L.U.     Spain

Achilles 888, LLC     United States

AcquiredNames LLC                United States

Active Registrar, Inc.              Singapore

Ad Valorem Domains, LLC      United States

Address Creation, LLC             United States

Addressontheweb, LLC           United States

Adomainofyourown.com LLC  United States

Advanced Internet Technologies, Inc. (AIT)           United States

Aerotek Bilisim Sanayi ve Ticaret AS     Turkey

Aetrion LLC dba DNSimple     United States

AFRIREGISTER S.A. Burundi

Afterdark Domains, Incorporated           United States

Agrinoon Inc            United States

Aim High!, Inc.        United States

Akamai Technologies, Inc.      United States

Alantron Bilisim Ltd Sti.         Turkey

Alethia Domains, LLC              United States

Alexander the Great, LLC        United States

Alfena, LLC              United States

Alibaba Cloud Computing Ltd. d/b/a HiChina (www.net.cn)                Singapore

Alibrother Technology Limited               China

Alice’s Registry, Inc.               United States

All Domains LLC      United States

Allaccessdomains, LLC            United States

Alldomains, LLC      United States

Allearthdomains.com LLC       United States

AllGlobalNames, S.A. dba Cyberegistro.com         Spain

Allworldnames.com LLC         United States

Alpine Domains Inc.                Canada

Alpnames Limited  Gibraltar

Amazon Registrar, Inc.           United States

Anessia Inc.             United States

Annam, LLC             United States

Annulet LLC             United States

Anytime Sites, Inc.  India

Apollo 888, LLC       United States

April Sea Information Technology Company Limited            Viet Nam

Aquarius Domains, LLC           United States

Arab Internet Names, Incorporated       United States

Arcanes Technologies             Morocco

Arctic Names, Inc.  Canada

Ares 888, LLC          United States

Aristotle 888, LLC    United States

Arsys Internet, S.L. dba NICLINE.COM    Spain

Arthur Pendragon, LLC            United States

Aruba SpA               Italy

Ascio Technologies, Inc. Danmark – Filial af Ascio technologies, Inc. USA          Denmark

AsiaDomains, Incorporated    United States

AsiaRegister, Inc.    Hong Kong

Astutium Limited    United Kingdom

Atak Domain Hosting Internet ve Bilgi Teknolojileri Limited Sirketi d/b/a Atak Teknoloji  Turkey

ATI           Tunisia

AtlanticDomains, LLC              United States

AtlanticFriendNames.com LLC               United States

Atomicdomainnames.com LLC               United States

Attila the Hun, LLC  United States

Austriadomains, LLC               United States

Austriandomains, LLC             United States

Authentic Web Inc. Canada

Automattic Inc.       United States

AvidDomain LLC      United States

AXC BV    Netherlands

Azdomainz, LLC       United States

Azprivatez, LLC        United States

Backslap Domains, Inc.           United States

Backstop Names LLC              United States

Baracuda Domains, LLC          United States

Baronofdomains.com LLC       United States

BatDomains.com Ltd.             Canada

BB-Online UK Limited            United Kingdom

BDL Systemes SAS dba ProDomaines    France

Beartrapdomains.com LLC     United States

Beijing Brandma International Networking Technology Ltd.                China

Beijing Guoxu Network Technology Co., Ltd.         China

Beijing HuaRui Wireless Technology Co., Ltd        China

Beijing Innovative Linkage Technology Ltd. dba dns.com.cn China

Beijing Lanhai Jiye Technology Co.,Ltd   China

Beijing Midwest Taian Technology Services Ltd.   China

Beijing RITT – Net Technology Development Co., Ltd            China

Beijing Sanfront Information Technology Co., Ltd China

Beijing Tong Guan Xin Tian Technology Ltd (Novaltel)         China

Beijing Wangzun Technology Co., Ltd.   China

Beijing ZhongWan Network Technology Co Ltd     China

Beijing Zhuoyue Shengming Technologies Company Ltd.     China

Beijing Zihai Technology Co., Ltd           China

Belmontdomains.com LLC      United States

Benjamin Franklin 888, LLC    United States

Best Drop Names LLC             United States

Betterthanaveragedomains.com LLC     United States

Bidfordomainnames, LLC       United States

Big Dipper Domains, LLC        United States

Big Domain Shop, Inc.            India

Big House Services, Inc.         United States

Biglizarddomains.com LLC     United States

BigRock Solutions Ltd.            India

Billy the Kid, LLC     United States

Binero AB                Sweden

Bizcn.com, Inc.        China

Blacknight Internet Solutions Ltd.          Ireland

BlastDomains LLC   United States

Blisternet, Incorporated         United States

BlockHost LLC         United States

Blue Angel Domains LLC         United States

Blue Fractal, Inc.     India

Blue Hi Interconnect (Beijing) Technology Limited Company               China

Blue Razor Domains, LLC        United States

Bombora Technologies Pty Ltd.              Australia

Bonam Fortunam Domains, LLC             United States

Bonzai Domains, LLC              United States

BoteroSolutions.com S.A.       United States

Bottle Domains, Inc.               Australia

Bounce Pass Domains LLC      United States

BR domain Inc. dba namegear.co          Japan

Brandma.co Limited               Hong Kong

BrandNames.com SARL         Switzerland

BRANDON GRAY INTERNET SERVICES INC. (dba “NameJuice.com”)  Canada

BraveNames Inc.    United States

Brennercom Limited               United States

BRS, LLC  United States

Buddha, LLC            United States

BullRunDomains.com LLC       United States

Burnsidedomains.com LLC     United States

camPoint AG           Germany

Capitaldomains, LLC               United States

Catalog.com            United States

Catch Deleting Names LLC     United States

Catch Domains LLC United States

CCI REG S.A.            Panama

Center of Ukrainian Internet Names (UKRNAMES)               Ukraine

Century Oriental International Co., Ltd. Hong Kong

Charlemagne 888, LLC            United States

Charles Darwin, LLC                United States

Chengdu Fly-Digital Technology Co., Ltd.               China

Chengdu West Dimension Digital Technology Co., Ltd.         China

China Springboard, Inc.           China

ChinaNet Technology (SuZhou) CO., LTD               China

Chinesedomains, LLC              United States

Chipshot Domains LLC            United States

ChocolateChipDomains, LLC   United States

Chocolatecovereddomains,LLC               United States

Circle of Domains LLC             United States

Claimeddomains, LLC             United States

Click Registrar, Inc. d/b/a publicdomainregistry.com           India

Cloud Bamboo, LLC China

Cloud Beauty, LLC   China

Cloud Boom, LLC     China

Cloud City, LLC         China

Cloud Diamond, LLC                China

Cloud Orchid, LLC    China

Cloud Plum, LLC      China

Cloud Seed, LLC       China

Cloud Shark, LLC      China

Cloud Sun, LLC         China

Cloud Super, LLC     China

Cloud System, LLC   China

CloudBreakDomains, LLC        United States

CloudFlare, Inc.       United States

CloudNineDomain, LLC           United States

Cocosislandsdomains, LLC      United States

Columbiadomains, LLC           United States

Columbianames.com LLC       United States

ComfyDomains LLC United States

Commerce Island, Inc.            India

CommuniGal Communication Ltd.         Israel

Compuglobalhypermega.com LLC          United States

Confucius, LLC         United States

Constantine the Great, LLC     United States

Cool Breeze Domains, LLC      United States

Cool Ocean, Inc.      India

Cool River Names, LLC            United States

Copper Domain Names LLC    United States

Coral Reef Domains LLC         United States

COREhub, S.R.L.      Spain

Corporation Service Company (DBS) INC.              United States

CORPORATION SERVICE COMPANY (UK) LIMITED                United States

Cosmotown, Inc.     Korea (South)

CPS-Datensysteme GmbH      Germany

Crazy Domains FZ-LLC            United Arab Emirates

Crisp Names, Inc.    India

Cronon AG               Germany

Crystal Coal, Inc.     India

CSC Corporate Domains, Inc.  United States

CSL Computer Service Langenbach GmbH d/b/a joker.com Germany

CT CORPORATION SYSTEM    United States

Curious Net, Inc.     India

Curveball Domains LLC           United States

1. Jogjacamp Indonesia
2. Rumahweb Indonesia Indonesia

CyanDomains, Inc.  Hong Kong

Cyrus the Great, LLC               United States

Dagnabit, Incorporated           United States

Dainam, LLC            United States

Dalai Lama, LLC      United States

DanCue Inc.             United States

DanDomain A/S      Denmark

Danesco Trading Ltd.              Cyprus

Dattatec.com SRL   Argentina

Decentdomains, LLC               United States

Deep Dive Domains, LLC         United States

Deep Sea Domains LLC           United States

Deep Water Domains LLC       United States

Deleting Name Zone LLC        United States

Deluxe Small Business Sales, Inc. d/b/a Aplus.net               United States

Demys Limited        United Kingdom

Department-of-domains, LLC United States

Deschutesdomains.com LLC   United States

Desert Devil, Inc.     India

Desert Sand Domains, LLC      United States

Deutchdomains, LLC               United States

Deutsche Telekom AG            Germany

DevilDogDomains.com, LLC    United States

Diamatrix C.C.         South Africa

Diggitydot, LLC        United States

Dinahosting s.l.       Spain

Discount Domains Ltd.            United Kingdom

Discountdomainservices, LLC United States

DNC Holdings, Inc.  United States

DNS:NET Internet Service GmbH           Germany

DNSPod, Inc.           China

Domain Ala Carte, LLC            United States

Domain Band, Inc.  India

Domain Bazaar LLC United States

Domain Central Australia Pty Ltd.          Australia

Domain Collage, LLC               United States

Domain Esta Aqui, LLC            United States

Domain Gold Zone LLC           United States

Domain Grabber LLC               United States

Domain Guardians, Inc.          United States

Domain Jamboree, LLC           United States

Domain Landing Zone LLC      United States

Domain Lifestyle, LLC             United States

Domain Locale, LLC United States

Domain Mantra, Inc.               India

Domain Monkeys, LLC             United States

DOMAIN NAME NETWORK PTY LTD      Australia

Domain Name Origin, LLC      United States

Domain Name Root, LLC        United States

Domain Name Services (Pty) Ltd           South Africa

Domain Original, LLC              United States

Domain Pickup LLC  United States

Domain Pro, LLC      United States

Domain Registration Services, Inc. dba dotEarth.com          United States

Domain Research, LLC            United States

Domain Rouge, Inc.                United States

Domain Secure LLC United States

Domain Source LLC United States

Domain Stopover LLC              United States

Domain Success LLC               United States

Domain The Net Technologies Ltd.        Israel

DOMAIN TRAIN, INC.              United States

Domain Vault Limited            Canada

Domain-A-Go-Go, LLC            United States

Domain-It!, Inc.       United States

Domain.com, LLC    United States

DomainAdministration.com, LLC            United States

DomainAhead LLC   United States

DomainAllies.com, Inc.           United States

Domainamania.com LLC         United States

Domainarmada.com LLC        United States

Domainbox Limited                United Kingdom

Domainbulkregistration, LLC  United States

Domainbusinessnames, LLC   United States

Domaincamping, LLC              United States

Domaincapitan.com LLC         United States

Domaincatcher LLC United States

Domaincircle LLC    United States

Domainclip Domains, Inc.       Canada

Domainclub.com, LLC             United States

Domaincomesaround.com LLC               United States

DomainContext, Inc.               United States

DomainCraze LLC    United States

DomainCreek LLC    United States

DomainCritics LLC   United States

DomainDelights LLC                United States

Domaindrop LLC      United States

Domainducks, LLC   United States

Domainer Names LLC             United States

DomainExtreme LLC               United States

domainfactory GmbH             Germany

DomainFalcon LLC  United States

Domaingazelle.com LLC         United States

DomainGetter LLC  United States

Domainhawks.net LLC            United States

DomainHood LLC    United States

Domainhostingweb, LLC         United States

Domainhysteria.com LLC        United States

Domainia Inc.          United States

Domaining Oro, LLC                United States

Domaininternetname, LLC      United States

Domaininthebasket.com LLC  United States

Domaininthehole.com LLC      United States

Domainjungle.net LLC             United States

DomainLadder LLC  United States

DomainLocal LLC     United States

Domainmonster Limited        United Kingdom

Domainmonster.com, Inc.      United States

DOMAINNAME BLVD, INC.     Hong Kong

DomainName Bridge, Inc.      Hong Kong

DomainName Driveway, Inc.  Hong Kong

DOMAINNAME FWY, INC.      Hong Kong

DomainName Highway LLC    Hong Kong

DomainName Parkway, Inc.   Hong Kong

DomainName Path, Inc.         Hong Kong

DomainName, Inc.  United States

Domainnamebidder, LLC        United States

Domainnamelookup, LLC        United States

Domainnovations, Incorporated             United States

DOMAINOO SAS     France

DomainParkBlock.com LLC     United States

DomainPeople, Inc. Canada

DomainPicking LLC  United States

Domainplace LLC    United States

DomainPrime.com LLC           United States

Domainraker.net LLC              United States

DomainRegistry.com Inc.       United States

Domainroyale.com LLC           United States

Domains Etc LLC     United States

Domains Express LLC              United States

Domains of Origin, LLC           United States

Domains.coop Limited            United Kingdom

DomainSails.net LLC               United States

Domainsalsa.com LLC             United States

Domainsareforever.net LLC    United States

Domainshop LLC     United States

Domainshype.com, Inc.          India

Domainsinthebag.com LLC     United States

DomainSite, Inc.     United States

DomainSnap, LLC    United States

Domainsnapper LLC                United States

Domainsofcourse.com LLC     United States

Domainsoftheday.net LLC       United States

Domainsoftheworld.net LLC   United States

Domainsofvalue.com LLC       United States

Domainsouffle.com LLC          United States

Domainsoverboard.com LLC   United States

Domainsovereigns.com LLC    United States

DomainSprouts.com LLC         United States

Domainstreetdirect.com LLC  United States

Domainsurgeon.com LLC        United States

DomainTact LLC      United States

Domaintimemachine.com LLC               United States

DomaintoOrder, LLC               United States

Domainwards.com LLC           United States

Domainyeti.com LLC               United States

Domainz Limited    New Zealand

Domdrill.com, Inc.  India

Domeneshop AS dba domainnameshop.com        Norway

Domerati, Inc.         United States

Dominion Domains, LLC          United States

DomReg Ltd. d/b/a LIBRIS.COM            Russian Federation

Domus Enterprises LLC dba DOMUS      United States

Dot Holding Inc.      United States

DotAlliance Inc.       Canada

DotArai Co., Ltd.      Thailand

DotMedia Limited   Hong Kong

Dotname Korea Corp.             Korea (South)

DotNamed LLC        United States

DotRoll Kft.             Hungary

DOTSERVE INC.       India

Douglas MacArthur, LLC         United States

Draftpick Domains LLC            United States

DreamHost, LLC      United States

DreamScape Networks FZ-LLC               United Arab Emirates

Drop Catch Mining LLC            United States

Dropcatch Auction LLC            United States

Dropcatch Landing Spot LLC   United States

Dropcatch Marketplace LLC    United States

DropCatch.com 1000 LLC        United States

DropCatch.com 1001 LLC        United States

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DropCatch.com 748 LLC          United States

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DropCatch.com 750 LLC          United States

DropCatch.com 751 LLC          United States

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DropCatch.com 999 LLC          United States

Dropcatching Names LLC        United States

DropExtra.com, Inc.                United States

DropFall.com Inc.    United States

DropHub.com, Inc.  United States

DropJump.com Inc. United States

Dropoutlet, Incorporated        United States

DropSave.com, Inc. United States

DropWalk.com, Inc.                United States

DropWeek.com, Inc.               United States

DuckBilledDomains.com LLC  United States

Dwight D. Eisenhower, LLC     United States

Dynadot, LLC           United States

Dynadot0 LLC          United States

Dynadot1 LLC          United States

Dynadot10 LLC        United States

Dynadot11 LLC        United States

Dynadot12 LLC        United States

Dynadot13 LLC        United States

Dynadot14 LLC        United States

Dynadot15 LLC        United States

Dynadot16 LLC        United States

Dynadot17 LLC        United States

Dynadot2 LLC          United States

Dynadot3 LLC          United States

Dynadot4 LLC          United States

Dynadot5 LLC          United States

Dynadot6 LLC          United States

Dynadot7 LLC          United States

Dynadot8 LLC          United States

Dynadot9 LLC          United States

Dynamic Network Services, Inc.             United States

DynaNames.com Inc.              United States

Eagle Eye Domains, LLC          United States

EastEndDomains, LLC             United States

EastNames Inc.       Panama

Easy Street Domains, LLC       United States

easyDNS Technologies Inc.     Canada

Easyspace Limited  United Kingdom

eBrand Services S.A.               Luxembourg

eBrandSecure, LLC  United States

EchoDomain LLC     United States

Ednit Software Private Limited              India

EIMS (Shenzhen) Culture & Technology Co., Ltd    China

Ejee Group Beijing Limited    China

EJEE Group Holdings Limited Hong Kong

Ekados, Inc., d/b/a groundregistry.com Italy

ELB Group Inc         France

Emerald Registrar Limited     Ireland

Emirates Telecommunications Corporation – Etisalat           United Arab Emirates

EmpireStateDomains Inc.       United States

eName Technology Co., Ltd.   China

Enameco, LLC          United States

EnCirca, Inc.            United States

EndeavourDomains, LLC         United States

Enetica Pty Ltd        Australia

Enom Corporate, Inc.              United States

Enom GMP Services, Inc.        United States

eNom World, Inc.   United States

eNom, Inc.              United States

Enom1, Inc.             United States

eNom1008, Inc.      United States

eNom1009, Inc.      United States

eNom1010, Inc.      United States

eNom1012, Inc.      United States

eNom1013, Inc.      United States

eNom1014, Inc.      United States

eNom1033, Inc.      United States

eNom1034, Inc.      United States

eNom1035, Inc.      United States

eNom1036, Inc.      United States

eNom1037, Inc.      United States

eNom1038, Inc.      United States

eNom1040, Inc.      United States

Enom2, Inc.             United States

Enom3, Inc.             United States

enom371, Incorporated          United States

enom373, Incorporated          United States

enom375, Incorporated          United States

enom377, Incorporated          United States

enom379, Incorporated          United States

enom381, Incorporated          United States

enom383, Incorporated          United States

enom385, Incorporated          United States

enom387, Incorporated          United States

enom389, Incorporated          United States

enom391, Incorporated          United States

enom393, Incorporated          United States

enom395, Incorporated          United States

enom397, Incorporated          United States

enom399, Incorporated          United States

Enom4, Inc.             United States

enom403, Incorporated          United States

enom405, Incorporated          United States

enom407, Incorporated          United States

enom409, Incorporated          United States

enom411, Incorporated          United States

enom413, Incorporated          United States

enom415, Incorporated          United States

enom417, Incorporated          United States

enom419, Incorporated          United States

enom421, Incorporated          United States

enom423, Incorporated          United States

enom425, Incorporated          United States

enom427, Incorporated          United States

enom429, Incorporated          United States

enom431, Incorporated          United States

enom433, Incorporated          United States

enom435, Incorporated          United States

enom437, Incorporated          United States

enom439, Incorporated          United States

enom441, Incorporated          United States

enom443, Incorporated          United States

enom445, Incorporated          United States

enom447, Incorporated          United States

enom449, Incorporated          United States

enom451, Incorporated          United States

enom453, Incorporated          United States

enom455, Incorporated          United States

enom457, Incorporated          United States

enom459, Incorporated          United States

enom461, Incorporated          United States

enom463, Incorporated          United States

enom465, Incorporated          United States

enom467, Incorporated          United States

enom469, Incorporated          United States

Enom5, Inc.             United States

eNom623, Inc.        United States

eNom625, Inc.        United States

eNom635, Inc.        United States

eNom646, Inc.        United States

eNom647, Inc.        United States

eNom650, Inc.        United States

eNom652, Inc.        United States

eNom654, Inc.        United States

eNom655, Inc.        United States

eNom656, Inc.        United States

eNom659, Inc.        United States

eNom661, Inc.        United States

eNom662, Inc.        United States

eNom663, Inc.        United States

eNom666, Inc.        United States

eNom672, Inc.        United States

Enoma1, Inc.           United States

EnomAte, Inc.         United States

EnomAU, Inc.          United States

eNombre Corporation             United States

EnomEU, Inc.          United States

Enomfor, Inc.          United States

EnomMX, Inc.          United States

Enomnz, Inc.           United States

eNomsky, Inc.         United States

EnomTen, Inc.         United States

EnomToo, Inc.         United States

EnomV, Inc.             United States

EnomX, Inc.             United States

Enset       United States

Entertainment Names, Incorporated     United States

Entorno Digital, S.A.               Spain

Entrust Domains, LLC              United States

EPAG Domainservices GmbH Germany

Epik, Inc.  United States

Eranet International Limited  Hong Kong

Eric the Red, LLC     United States

Erwin Rommel, LLC                United States

Ethos Domains, LLC                United States

EU Technology (HK) Limited  Hong Kong

EUNameFlood.com LLC          United States

EunamesOregon.com LLC       United States

EuroDNS S.A.          Luxembourg

EuropeanConnectiononline.com LLC      United States

EurotrashNames.com LLC      United States

EUTurbo.com LLC    United States

Ever Ready Names, Inc.          India

Everyones Internet, Ltd. dba SoftLayer  United States

Excalibur, LLC          United States

Exclusive Domain Find LLC     United States

Experinom Inc.        Canada

Extend Names, Inc. India

Extra Threads Corporation      United States

Extremely Wild       India

EZ Times Domains, LLC          United States

Fabulous.com Pty Ltd             Australia

Fair Trade Domains, LLC         United States

Fan Domains Ltd     Hong Kong

Fastball Domains LLC             United States

FastDomain Inc.      United States

FBS Inc.   Turkey

Fenominal, Inc.       United States

Fetch Registrar, LLC                United States

Fiducia LLC, Latvijas Parstavnieciba       Latvia

Find Good Domains, Inc.        India

FindUAName.com LLC            United States

FindYouADomain.com LLC      United States

FindYouAName.com LLC        United States

Fine Grain Domains, LLC        United States

Firstround Names LLC            United States

Firstserver, Inc.       Japan

Flancrestdomains.com LLC     United States

FLAPPY DOMAIN, INC.            Hong Kong

Focus IP, Inc. dba AppDetex   United States

Foshan YiDong Network Co., LTD           China

Free Dive Domains, LLC          United States

Free Drop Zone LLC United States

Free Spirit Domains, LLC        United States

Freefall Domains LLC              United States

Freeparking Domain Registrars, Inc.      United States

French Connexion SARL dba Domaine.fr                France

Freshbreweddomains.com LLC              United States

FrontStreetDomains.com LLC United States

Fujian Domains, Inc.               Hong Kong

Fujian Litian Network Technology Co.,Ltd              China

Funpeas Media Ventures, LLC dba DomainProcessor.com    United States

Fushi Tarazu, Incorporated     United States

Gabia C&S               Korea (South)

Gabia, Inc.               Korea (South)

Galileo Galilei, LLC United States

Game For Names, Inc.           India

Gandi SAS               France

GateKeeperDomains.net LLC  United States

Genghis Khan, LLC  United States

Genious Communications SARL/AU      Morocco

George S. Patton, LLC             United States

George Washington 888, LLC United States

Gesloten Domain N.V.            Netherlands Antilles

Ghana Dot Com Ltd.               Ghana

GKG.NET, INC.        United States

GlamDomains LLC  United States

Glide Slope Domains, LLC       United States

Global Domains International, Inc. DBA DomainCostClub.com             United States

Global Village GmbH             Germany

GMO Brights Consulting Inc.  Japan

GMO Internet, Inc. d/b/a Onamae.com                Japan

GMO-Z.com Pte. Ltd.              Japan

Go Australia Domains, LLC     United States

Go Canada Domains, LLC        United States

Go China Domains, LLC           United States

Go France Domains, LLC         United States

Go Full House, Inc. India

Go Montenegro Domains, LLC                United States

GoDaddy.com, LLC  United States

Godomaingo.com LLC             United States

Gold Domain Names LLC        United States

Goldenfind Domains LLC        United States

Goldmine Domains LLC          United States

GoName-FL.com, Inc.             United States

GoName-HI.com, Inc.             United States

GoName-TN.com, Inc.            United States

GoName-TX.com, Inc.            United States

GoName-WA.com, Inc.          United States

GoName.com, Inc   United States

Good Domain Registry Pvt Ltd.              India

Good Luck Internet Services PVT, LTD.   India

Google Inc.              United States

GoServeYourDomain.com LLC                United States

Goto Domains LLC  United States

Gozerdomains.com LLC          United States

Gradeadomainnames.com LLC              United States

Gransy, s.r.o. d/b/a subreg.cz                Czech Republic

Green Destiny, LLC  United States

GreenZoneDomains Inc.         United States

Ground Internet, Inc.              Turkey

Guangdong HUYI Internet & IP Services Co., Ltd   China

Guangdong JinWanBang Technology Investment Co., Ltd.   China

GuangDong NaiSiNiKe Information Technology Co Ltd.        China

Guangzhou Domains, Inc.       Hong Kong

Guangzhou Ehost Tech. Co. Ltd.             China

Guangzhou Ming Yang Information Technology Co., Ltd       China

Gunga Galunga Corporation   United States

Hang Ten Domains, LLC          United States

HANGANG Systems, Inc. dba Doregi.com             Korea (South)

Hanging Curve Domains LLC   United States

Hangzhou AiMing Network Co., Ltd.      China

Hangzhou Dianshang Internet Technology Co., LTD.             China

Hangzhou Duomai E-Commerce Co., Ltd               China

Hangzhou Midaizi Network Co., Ltd.      China

Hannibal Barca, LLC                United States

Haveaname, LLC     United States

Hawthornedomains.com LLC United States

HazelDomains, Inc. Hong Kong

Heavens Will, LLC   United States

Heavydomains.net LLC           United States

Hebei Guoji Maoyi (Shanghai) LTD dba HebeiDomains.com                China

Hello Internet Corp.                United States

Henan Weichuang Network Technology Co. Ltd.   China

Hercules 888, LLC   United States

Hetzner Online GmbH            Germany

Hezhong Liancheng Beijing Technology Co., Ltd    China

HiChina Zhicheng Technology Limited   China

HLJ E-Link Network Co., Ltd    China

HOAPDI INC.           Philippines

Hogan Lovells International LLP             France

HongKong Di En Si International Co., Limited        Hong Kong

Hongkong Domain Name Information Management Co., Ltd.              Hong Kong

Honjo Masamune, LLC            United States

HooYoo Information Technology Co. Ltd.               China

Hosteur SARL          France

Hosting Concepts B.V. d/b/a Openprovider           Netherlands

Hosting Ukraine LLC               Ukraine

Hostinger, UAB       Lithuania

Hostlane, LLC          United States

Hostnet bv              Netherlands

Hostpoint AG          Switzerland

Hostserver GmbH   Germany

Hotdomaintrade.com, Inc.     India

House of Domains, LLC           United States

Hrunting, LLC          United States

http.net Internet GmbH         Germany

Hu Yi Global Information Hong Kong Limited       Hong Kong

Humeia Corporation               Japan

Iconicnames LLC     United States

Ignitela, LLC            United States

IHS Telekom, Inc.    Turkey

Ilait AB    Sweden

Imminentdomains.net LLC     United States

Imperial Registrations, Inc.    United States

In2net Network Inc.                Canada

Inames Co., Ltd.      Korea (South)

Indirection Identity Corporation             United States

iNET CORPORATION               Viet Nam

Infocom Network Ltd.             India

Infomaniak Network SA         Switzerland

Ingenit GmbH & Co. KG          Germany

Inic GmbH               Switzerland

InlandDomains, LLC                United States

InsaneNames LLC   United States

INSTANTNAMES LLC               United States

Instinct Solutions, Inc.            India

Instra Corporation Pty Ltd.      Australia

Interdominios, Inc.  Spain

Interlakenames.com LLC        United States

Interlink Co., Ltd.     Japan

Internet Domain Name System Beijing Engineering Research Center LLC (ZDNS)              China

Internet Domain Service BS Corp           Bahamas

Internet Internal Affairs Corporation     United States

Internet Invest, Ltd. dba Imena.ua         Ukraine

Internet NAYANA Inc.             Korea (South)

Internetters Limited               United Kingdom

Intersolved-FL.com, Inc.         United States

Intersolved-HI.com, Inc.         United States

Intersolved-TN.com, Inc.        United States

Intersolved-TX.com, Inc.         United States

Intersolved-WA.com Inc.        United States

Interweb Advertising D.B.A. Profile Builder           United States

Intracom Middle East FZE      United Arab Emirates

INWX GmbH & Co. KG            Germany

IP Mirror Pte Ltd dba IP MIRROR           United States

IP Twins SAS           France

Isaac Newton, LLC  United States

IServeYourDomain.com LLC    United States

Isoroku Yamamoto, LLC          United States

James Madison, LLC               United States

Japan Registry Services Co., Ltd.            Japan

JARHEADDOMAINS.COM, LLC                United States

Jiangsu Bangning Science & technology Co. Ltd.   China

Joan of Arc, LLC       United States

Joyeuse, LLC            United States

JPRS Registrar Co., Ltd.          Japan

JSC Registrar R01   Russian Federation

Julius Caesar, LLC    United States

Jumbo Name, Inc.   India

Jumpshot Domains LLC           United States

Kagoya Japan Inc.   Japan

Karl Von Clausewitz, LLC        United States

Kaunas University of Technology, Department of Information Technologies dba Domreg.lt              Lithuania

Key Registrar, Inc.   India

Key-Systems GmbH                Germany

Key-Systems, LLC    United States

Kheweul.com SA     Senegal

Kingdomains, Incorporated    United States

KINX Co., Ltd.          Korea (South)

Klaatudomains.com LLC         United States

Knet Registrar Co., Ltd.           China

Kontent GmbH        Germany

Korea Server Hosting Inc.       Korea (South)

Koreacenter.com co., Ltd.       Korea (South)

KQW, Inc.                Hong Kong

KuwaitNET General Trading Co.             Kuwait

La Tizone, LLC         United States

Ladas Domains LLC United States

Lakeodomains.com LLC          United States

Larsen Data ApS     Denmark

Launchpad.com Inc.                United States

Layup Domains LLC United States

LCN.COM Ltd.          United Kingdom

Leatherneckdomains.com, LLC               United States

Ledl.net GmbH       Austria

Leif Ericson, LLC      United States

LEMARIT GmbH      Germany

Lemon Shark Domains, LLC    United States

Leonardo da Vinci, LLC            United States

Leonidas, LLC          United States

Lexsynergy Limited United Kingdom

Ligne Web Services SARL dba LWS        France

Line Drive Domains, LLC         United States

Lionshare Domains, LLC          United States

LiquidNet Ltd.         United Kingdom

LiteDomains LLC     United States

LogicBoxes Naming Services Ltd            India

Long Drive Domains LLC         United States

Lucky Elephant Domains, LLC United States

MAFF AVENUE, INC.               Hong Kong

MAFF Inc.                Hong Kong

Magic Friday, Inc.   India

Magnate Domains, LLC           United States

Magnolia Domains, LLC          United States

Mahatma Gandhi, LLC            United States

Mailinh, LLC            United States

MainReg Inc.           Bulgaria

Major League Domains, LLC   United States

Maoming QunYing Network Co., Ltd.     China

Marcaria.com International, Inc.            United States

Mark Barker, Incorporated     United States

MarkMonitor Inc.    United States

Masterofmydomains.net LLC United States

Mat Bao Trading & Services Joint Stock Company d/b/a Mat Bao       Viet Nam

Maximus, LLC          United States

Mayi Information Co., Limited               Hong Kong

Media Elite Holdings Limited Panama

Meganames LLC     United States

Megazone Corp., dba HOSTING.KR        Korea (South)

Melbourne IT Ltd    Australia

Mesh Digital Limited              United Kingdom

Metaregistrar BV    Netherlands

Microbreweddomains.com LLC              United States

Microsoft Corporation            United States

MidWestDomains, LLC           United States

Mighty Bay, Inc.      India

Mijn InternetOplossing B.V.   Netherlands

Mijndomein.nl BV   Netherlands

Millennial Names LLC             United States

Minds and Machines LLC        United States

Minds and Machines Registrar UK Limited           United States

Misk.com, Inc.         United States

MISTERNIC LLC       United States

Mobile Name Services, Inc.    United States

Moniker Online Services LLC  United States

Moon Shot Domains, LLC        United States

Mps Infotecnics Limited         India

Mvpdomainnames.com LLC   United States

MyManager, Inc.     United States

Mypreciousdomain.com LLC   United States

Nakazawa Trading Co.,Ltd.     Japan

Name Connection Area LLC    United States

Name Connection Spot LLC    United States

Name Find Source LLC            United States

Name Icon LLC        United States

Name Nelly Corporation         United States

Name Perfections, Inc.           India

Name Share, Inc.    United States

Name Thread Corporation      United States

Name To Fame, Inc.               India

Name Trance LLC    United States

Name.cc Inc            United States

Name.com, Inc.      United States

Name.net, Inc.        United States

Name104, Inc.        United States

Name105, Inc.        United States

Name106, Inc.        United States

Name107, Inc.        United States

Name108, Inc.        United States

Name109, Inc.        United States

Name110, Inc.        United States

Name111, Inc.        United States

Name112, Inc.        United States

Name113, Inc.        United States

Name114, Inc.        United States

Name115, Inc.        United States

Name116, Inc.        United States

Name117, Inc.        United States

Name118, Inc.        United States

Name119, Inc.        United States

Name120, Inc.        United States

Namearsenal.com LLC            United States

NameBake LLC        United States

Namebay SAM        Monaco

NameBrew LLC       United States

NameCamp Limited               United Kingdom

Namecatch LLC       United States

Namecatch Zone LLC              United States

NameCentral, Inc.   United States

NameCheap, Inc.    United States

NameChild LLC        United States

Namecroc.com LLC United States

Nameemperor.com LLC          United States

Namefinger.com LLC              United States

NameForward LLC  United States

Namegrab LLC        United States

NameJolt.com LLC  United States

NameKing.com Inc.                United States

Nameling.com LLC  United States

Namemaster RC GmbH         Germany

NamePal.com #8001              United States

NamePal.com #8002              United States

NamePal.com #8004              United States

NamePal.com #8006              United States

NamePal.com #8007              United States

NamePal.com #8008              United States

NamePal.com #8009              United States

NamePal.com #8010              United States

NamePal.com #8011              United States

NamePal.com #8012              United States

NamePal.com #8013              United States

NamePal.com #8014              United States

NamePal.com #8015              United States

NamePal.com #8016              United States

NamePal.com #8017              United States

NamePal.com #8018              United States

NamePal.com #8019              United States

NamePal.com #8021              United States

NamePal.com #8023              United States

NamePal.com #8024              United States

NamePal.com #8025              United States

NamePal.com #8026              United States

NamePal.com #8027              United States

NamePal.com #8028              United States

NamePal.com, LLC  United States

Namepanther.com LLC           United States

Names Express LLC United States

Names In Motion, Inc.            United States

Names On The Drop LLC         United States

Names Stop Here LLC             United States

Namesalacarte.com LLC         United States

Namesaplenty LLC  United States

NameSay LLC          United States

NameScout Corp.    Barbados

NameSector LLC     United States

NameSecure L.L.C.  United States

Nameselite, LLC      United States

NamesHere LLC      United States

Nameshield SAS     France

NameSilo, LLC         United States

Namesnap LLC        United States

NameSnapper LLC  United States

Namesource LLC     United States

Namesourcedomains, LLC      United States

Namespro Solutions Inc.        Canada

Namestop LLC         United States

NameStrategies LLC               United States

NameStream.com, Inc.          United States

NameTell.com LLC  United States

NameTurn LLC        United States

Namevolcano.com LLC           United States

NameWeb BVBA    Belgium

Namewinner LLC    United States

Namezero, LLC        United States

Namware.com, Inc.                India

Nanjing Imperiosus Technology Co. Ltd.                China

Napoleon Bonaparte, LLC       United States

Naugus Limited LLC                United States

NCC Group Secure Registrar, Inc.           United States

Need Servers, Inc.   India

Neen Srl  Italy

NeoNIC OY              Finland

Nerd Names Corporation       United States

Net 4 India Limited India

Net Juggler, Inc.      India

Net Logistics Pty Ltd.              Australia

Net-Chinese Co., Ltd.              Taiwan

NetArt Sp z o.o       Poland

Netdorm, Inc. dba DnsExit.com              United States

NetEarth One Inc. d/b/a NetEarth         United Kingdom

Netestate, LLC        United States

NETIM SARL            France

Netistrar Limited    United Kingdom

Netnames Pty Ltd.  Australia

Netowl, Inc.            Japan

Netpia.com, Inc.     Korea (South)

NetraCorp LLC dba Global Internet        United States

NetRegistry Pty Ltd.                Australia

NetTuner Corp. dba Webmasters.com  United States

Network Information Center Mexico, S.C.             Mexico

Network Savior, Inc.               India

Network Solutions, LLC           United States

Networking4all B.V.               Netherlands

Netzadresse.at Domain Service GmbH Austria

NetZone AG            Switzerland

Neubox Internet S.A. de C.V.  Mexico

NEUDOMAIN LLC    United States

New Great Domains, Inc.       Anguilla

New Order Domains, LLC       United States

Nhan Hoa Software Company Ltd.         Viet Nam

NHN Techorus Corp.               Japan

Nicco Ltd.                Russian Federation

NICREG LLC             United States

Nics Telekomünikasyon Tic Ltd. Şti.       Turkey

Nictrade Internet Identity Provider AB   Sweden

Niuedomains, LLC   United States

Nom Infinitum, Incorporated United States

Nom-iq Ltd. dba COM LAUDE United Kingdom

Nominalia Internet S.L.          Spain

Nominet Registrar Services Limited      United Kingdom

NordNet SA             France

Nordreg AB             Sweden

NorthNames Inc.    United States

Noteworthydomains, LLC       United States

NoticedDomains LLC               United States

NotSoFamousNames.com LLC               United States

Number One Web Hosting Limited       China

NUXIT      France

Octopusdomains.net LLC        United States

Odysseus 888, LLC  United States

Oi Internet S/A       Brazil

Old Tyme Domains, LLC          United States

OldTownDomains.com LLC     United States

OldWorldAliases.com LLC      United States

Omni 888, LLC         United States

Omnis Network, LLC               United States

One Putt, Inc.          United States

One.com A/S          Denmark

Onlide Inc                United States

Online Data Services Joint Stock Company            Viet Nam

Online SAS              France

OnlineNIC, Inc.        United States

Only Domains Limited            New Zealand

Open System Ltda – Me          Brazil

OPENNAME LLC      United States

OpenTLD B.V.          Netherlands

ORANGE SA            France

OregonEU.com LLC United States

OregonURLs.com LLC             United States

Ourdomains Limited               Hong Kong

OVH sas  France

Own Identity, Inc.   Italy

P.A. Viet Nam Company Limited            Viet Nam

PacificDomains, LLC                United States

Paimi Inc United States

Painted Pony Names, LLC       United States

pair Networks, Inc.d/b/a pairNIC           United States

Paknic (Private) Limited         Pakistan

Papaki Ltd               Greece

Paragon Internet Group Ltd t/a Paragon Names   United Kingdom

Pararescuedomains.com, LLC United States

PDR Ltd. d/b/a PublicDomainRegistry.com           India

PDXPrivateNames.com LLC    United States

PE Overseas Limited               United Arab Emirates

PearlNamingService.com LLC United States

Perseus 888, LLC     United States

Peter the Great, LLC               United States

Pheenix 1, LLC         United States

Pheenix 10, LLC       United States

Pheenix 100, LLC     United States

Pheenix 11, LLC       United States

Pheenix 12, LLC       United States

Pheenix 13, LLC       United States

Pheenix 14, LLC       United States

Pheenix 15, LLC       United States

Pheenix 16, LLC       United States

Pheenix 17, LLC       United States

Pheenix 18, LLC       United States

Pheenix 19, LLC       United States

Pheenix 2, LLC         United States

Pheenix 20, LLC       United States

Pheenix 21, LLC       United States

Pheenix 22, LLC       United States

Pheenix 23, LLC       United States

Pheenix 24, LLC       United States

Pheenix 25, LLC       United States

Pheenix 26, LLC       United States

Pheenix 27, LLC       United States

Pheenix 28, LLC       United States

Pheenix 29, LLC       United States

Pheenix 3, LLC         United States

Pheenix 30, LLC       United States

Pheenix 31, LLC       United States

Pheenix 32, LLC       United States

Pheenix 33, LLC       United States

Pheenix 34, LLC       United States

Pheenix 35, LLC       United States

Pheenix 36, LLC       United States

Pheenix 37, LLC       United States

Pheenix 38, LLC       United States

Pheenix 39, LLC       United States

Pheenix 4, LLC         United States

Pheenix 40, LLC       United States

Pheenix 41, LLC       United States

Pheenix 42, LLC       United States

Pheenix 43, LLC       United States

Pheenix 44, LLC       United States

Pheenix 45, LLC       United States

Pheenix 46, LLC       United States

Pheenix 47, LLC       United States

Pheenix 48, LLC       United States

Pheenix 49, LLC       United States

Pheenix 5, LLC         United States

Pheenix 50, LLC       United States

Pheenix 51, LLC       United States

Pheenix 52, LLC       United States

Pheenix 53, LLC       United States

Pheenix 54, LLC       United States

Pheenix 55, LLC       United States

Pheenix 56, LLC       United States

Pheenix 57, LLC       United States

Pheenix 58, LLC       United States

Pheenix 59, LLC       United States

Pheenix 6, LLC         United States

Pheenix 60, LLC       United States

Pheenix 61, LLC       United States

Pheenix 62, LLC       United States

Pheenix 63, LLC       United States

Pheenix 64, LLC       United States

Pheenix 65, LLC       United States

Pheenix 66, LLC       United States

Pheenix 67, LLC       United States

Pheenix 68, LLC       United States

Pheenix 69, LLC       United States

Pheenix 7, LLC         United States

Pheenix 70, LLC       United States

Pheenix 71, LLC       United States

Pheenix 72, LLC       United States

Pheenix 73, LLC       United States

Pheenix 74, LLC       United States

Pheenix 75, LLC       United States

Pheenix 76, LLC       United States

Pheenix 77, LLC       United States

Pheenix 78, LLC       United States

Pheenix 79, LLC       United States

Pheenix 8, LLC         United States

Pheenix 80, LLC       United States

Pheenix 81, LLC       United States

Pheenix 82, LLC       United States

Pheenix 83, LLC       United States

Pheenix 84, LLC       United States

Pheenix 85, LLC       United States

Pheenix 86, LLC       United States

Pheenix 87, LLC       United States

Pheenix 88, LLC       United States

Pheenix 89, LLC       United States

Pheenix 9, LLC         United States

Pheenix 90, LLC       United States

Pheenix 91, LLC       United States

Pheenix 92, LLC       United States

Pheenix 93, LLC       United States

Pheenix 94, LLC       United States

Pheenix 95, LLC       United States

Pheenix 96, LLC       United States

Pheenix 97, LLC       United States

Pheenix 98, LLC       United States

Pheenix 99, LLC       United States

Pheenix, Inc.            United States

PierX, Inc Japan

Pink Elephant Domains, LLC   United States

Pipeline Domains, LLC            United States

PlanetDomain Pty Ltd             Australia

PlanetHoster Inc.    Canada

Platinum Registrar, Inc.          India

Plato 888, LLC         United States

PocketDomain.com Inc.          Hong Kong

Porkbun LLC             United States

Porting Access B.V. Netherlands

PortlandNames.com LLC        United States

Ports Group AB       Sweden

Poseidon 888, LLC   United States

PostalDomains, Incorporated United States

Power Carrier, Inc.  India

Power Namers, Inc.                India

Powered by Domain.com LLC United States

Premierename.ca Inc.            China

PresidentialDomains LLC        United States

PrivacyPost, LLC      United States

Private Domains, Incorporated               United States

Promo People, Inc.  Canada

ProNamed LLC        United States

Protocol Internet Technology Limited T/A Hosting Ireland   Ireland

Protondomains.com LLC         United States

PSI-Japan, Inc.         Japan

PSI-USA, Inc. dba Domain Robot            Germany

PT Ardh Global Indonesia       Indonesia

Purenic Japan Inc.   Japan

Purity Names Incorporated    United States

Rabbitsfoot.com LLC d/b/a Oxygen.nyc United States

Radu Damian, LLC   United States

Rainydaydomains.com LLC     United States

Rally Cry Domains, LLC           United States

Ramses II, LLC         United States

Rank USA, Inc.        India

Rare Gem Domains LLC          United States

Realtime Register B.V.           Netherlands

Rebel Ltd Barbados

Rebel.ca Corp.         Canada

ReclaimDomains LLC              United States

REG.BG OOD          Bulgaria

Reg2C.com Inc.       Turkey

Regional Network Information Center, JSC dba RU-CENTER                Russian Federation

Register Names, LLC              United States

Register NV dba Register.eu  Belgium

Register.ca Inc.       Canada

Register.com, Inc.   United States

REGISTER.IT SPA    Italy

Register4Less, Inc.  United States

Registrar Manager Inc.           United States

Registrar of Domain Names REG.RU LLC              Russian Federation

Registrar Services LLC            United States

RegistrarDirect LLC`                United States

RegistrarSafe, LLC  United States

RegistrarSEC LLC     United States

RegistrarTrust, LLC United States

Registration Technologies, Inc.              United States

Registrator Domenov LLC       Russian Federation

RegistryGate GmbH               Germany

Regtime Ltd.           Russian Federation

Reliable Software   Belarus

Reseller Services, Inc. dba ResellServ.com            United States

Retail Domains, Inc.               United States

Rethem Hosting LLC               United States

Richard the Lionheart 888, LLC               United States

Ripcord Domains, LLC             United States

Ripcurl Domains, LLC              United States

Riptide Domains, LLC              United States

Robert E. Lee 888, LLC            United States

rockenstein AG       Germany

SafeBrands SAS      France

SafeNames Ltd.      United Kingdom

SALENAMES LTD     Russian Federation

Samjung Data Service Co., Ltd               Korea (South)

Sammamishdomains.com LLC               United States

Samoandomains, LLC             United States

Santiamdomains.com LLC      United States

SaveMoreNames.com Inc.     United States

Savethename.com LLC           United States

SBSNames, Incorporated       United States

Scipio Africanus, LLC               United States

Searchnresq, Inc.    United States

Secondround Names LLC        United States

Secura GmbH         Germany

Sedo.com LLC          United States

Server Plan Srl        Italy

Service Development Center of the State Commission Office for Public Sector Reform     China

Seymour Domains, LLC           United States

Shanghai Best Oray Information S&T Co., Ltd.      China

Shanghai Meicheng Technology Information Development Co., Ltd.    China

Shanghai Oweb Network Co., Ltd          China

Shanghai Yovole Networks, Inc.             China

Sharkweek Domains LLC         United States

Shenzhen Esin Technology Co., Ltd        China

Shenzhen HuLianXianFeng Technology Co.,LTD     China

Shenzhen Internet Works Online Technology Co., Ltd. (62.com)          China

Shining Star Domains, LLC      United States

Shinjiru MSC Sdn Bhd             Malaysia

Sibername Internet and Software Technologies Inc.            Canada

SicherRegister, Incorporated  United States

SiliconHouse.Net Pvt Ltd.       India

Silver Domain Names LLC      United States

Silverbackdomains.com LLC   United States

Sipence, Inc.            United States

Sir Lancelot du Lac, LLC          United States

Sitefrenzy.com LLC United States

SiteName Ltd.         Israel

Sksa Technology Co., Limited Hong Kong

Skykomishdomains.com LLC   United States

Slamdunk Domains LLC          United States

Sliceofheaven Domains, LLC   United States

Slow Motion Domains LLC      United States

Slow Putt Domains LLC           United States

Small Business Names and Certs, Incorporated    United States

Small World Communications, Inc.        United States

Snag Your Name LLC              United States

Snappyregistrar.com LLC        United States

Snapsource LLC       United States

Snoqulamiedomains.com LLC                United States

Soaring Eagle Domains, LLC   United States

Socrates 888, LLC    United States

SoftLayer Technologies, Inc.   United States

Soldierofonedomains.com, LLC              United States

Soluciones Corporativas IP, SL                Spain

Sourced Domains, LLC            United States

SouthNames Inc.    United States

Soyouwantadomain.com LLC United States

Spartacus, LLC         United States

SQUIDSAILERDOMAINS.COM, LLC         United States

Sssasss, Incorporated             United States

Sterling Domains LLC              United States

Stichting Registrar of Last Resort Foundation       Netherlands

Stork Registry Inc.   Canada

Stormbringer, LLC   United States

Straight 8 Domains, LLC         United States

Streamline Domains, LLC       United States

Sugar Cube Domains, LLC       United States

Sun Tzu 888, LLC     United States

Super Name World, Inc.         India

Super Registry Ltd  Barbados

SW Hosting & Communications Technologies SL dba Serveisweb       Spain

Swedish Domains AB             Sweden

Switchplus Ltd        Switzerland

Swordfish Domains LLC          United States

Synergy Wholesale Pty Ltd     Australia

Taiwan Network Information Center     Taiwan

Taka Enterprise Ltd Japan

Tan Tran, LLC          United States

Targeted Drop Catch LLC        United States

Tech Tyrants, Inc.    India

Tecnocrática Centro de Datos, S.L.         Spain

Tecnologia, Desarrollo Y Mercado S. de R.L. de C.V.             Honduras

The Domains LLC    United States

The Registrar Company B.V.  Netherlands

The Registrar Service, Inc.      India

The Registry at Info Avenue, LLC d/b/a Spirit Communications           United States

TheNameCo LLC      United States

Theseus 888, LLC    United States

ThirdFloorDNS.com LLC          United States

Thirdroundnames LLC             United States

Thomas Edison, LLC                United States

Thomas Jefferson, LLC            United States

Threadagent.com, Inc.            Hong Kong

Threadwalker.com, Inc.          United States

Threadwatch.com, Inc.           United States

Threadwise.com, Inc.             United States

Threepoint Domains LLC         United States

Tianjin Zhuiri Science and Technology Development Co Ltd.                China

TierraNet Inc. d/b/a DomainDiscover    United States

Tiger Shark Domains, LLC       United States

Tiger Technologies LLC           United States

Tirupati Domains and Hosting Pvt Ltd.  India

Titanic Hosting, Inc.                India

Titus 888, LLC          United States

TLD Registrar Pty Ltd              Australia

TLD Registrar Solutions Ltd.   United Kingdom

TLDS L.L.C. d/b/a SRSPlus      United States

Tname Group Inc.   Hong Kong

Todaynic.com, Inc.  China

TOGLODO S.A.        Costa Rica

Tong Ji Ming Lian (Beijing) Technology Corporation Ltd. (Trename)    China

Top Level Domains LLC           United States

Top Pick Names LLC                United States

Top Shelf Domains LLC           United States

Top Tier Domains LLC             United States

Topsystem, LLC       United States

Total Web Solutions Limited trading as TotalRegistrations United Kingdom

TotallyDomain LLC  United States

Touchdown Domains LLC        United States

TPP Domains Pty Ltd. dba TPP Internet  Australia

TPP Wholesale Pty Ltd            Australia

Trade Starter, Inc.   India

TradeNamed LLC    United States

Tradewinds Names, LLC         United States

Traffic Names, Incorporated  United States

TransIP B.V.            Netherlands

TravelDomains, Incorporated United States

Treasure Trove Domains LLC  United States

Tropic Management Systems, Inc.         United States

Trunkoz Technologies Pvt Ltd. d/b/a OwnRegistrar.com      India

Tucows Domains Inc.              Canada

Tuonome.it Srl d/b/a APIsrs.com           Italy

Turbonames LLC     United States

TurnCommerce, Inc. DBA NameBright.com          United States

Tuvaludomains, LLC                United States

TWT S.p.A.              Italy

Udamain.com LLC   United States

UdomainName.com LLC         United States

UK-2 Limited           United Kingdom

Ulfberht, LLC           United States

Ultra Registrar, Inc.                India

Ulysses S. Grant, LLC              United States

Unified Servers, Inc.               India

Uniregistrar Corp    Cayman Islands

united-domains AG                Germany

Unitedkingdomdomains, LLC  United States

Universal Registration Services, Inc. dba NewDentity.com  United States

Universo Online S/A (UOL)    Brazil

Unpower, Inc.         India

Upperlink Limited   Nigeria

URL Solutions, Inc.  Panama

V12 Domains, LLC   United States

Variomedia AG dba puredomain.com   Germany

Vautron Rechenzentrum AG  Germany

Vedacore.com, Inc. United States

VentraIP Australia Pty Ltd      Australia

Verelink, Inc.           United States

Veritas Domains, LLC              United States

Vertex names.com, Inc.          India

Victorynames LLC   United States

Vigson, Inc.             Panama

Virtual Registrar, Inc.             Netherlands

Virtucom Networks S.A.         Argentina

Visual Monster, Inc.                India

VisualNames LLC    United States

Vitalwerks Internet Solutions, LLC DBA No-IP       United States

Vivid Domains, Inc. Belize

Vlad the Impaler, LLC             United States

Vo Nguyen Giap, LLC              United States

Vodien Internet Solutions Pte Ltd          Singapore

Web Business, LLC  United States

Web Commerce Communications Limited dba WebNic.cc   Malaysia

Web Drive Ltd.        New Zealand

Web Site Source, Inc.             United States

Web Werks India Pvt. Ltd d/b/a ZenRegistry.com                India

Web4Africa Inc.      South Africa

Webagentur.at Internet Services GmbH d/b/a domainname.at          Austria

Webair Internet Development, Inc.        United States

Webnames Limited                Russian Federation

Webnames.ca Inc.  Canada

West263 International Limited              China

WhatIsYourDomain LLC          United States

White Alligator Domains, LLC                United States

White Rhino Domains, LLC     United States

Whiteglove Domains, Incorporated       United States

Whois Networks Co., Ltd.       Korea (South)

WHT Co., Ltd           Korea (South)

Wide Left Domains LLC          United States

Wide Right Domains LLC        United States

Wild Bill Hickok, LLC               United States

Wild Bunch Domains, LLC       United States

Wild West Domains, LLC        United States

Wildzebradomains, LLC          United States

WillametteNames.com LLC   United States

William the Conqueror, LLC    United States

William Wallace, LLC             United States

Win Names LLC      United States

Wingu Networks, S.A. de C.V.                Mexico

Winston Churchill, LLC            United States

WIXI Incorporated   Japan

World Biz Domains, LLC         United States

World4You Internet Services GmbH      Austria

WorthyDomains LLC               United States

Xiamen ChinaSource Internet Service Co., Ltd       China

Xiamen Dianmei Network Technology Co., Ltd.     China

Xiamen Domains, Inc.             Hong Kong

Xiamen Nawang Technology Co., Ltd     China

Xiamen Niucha Technology Co., Ltd.      China

Xiamen Xin click Network Polytron Technologies Inc            China

Xiamen Yuwang Technology Co., LTD    China

Xin Net Technology Corporation             China

Yellow Start, Inc.    India

yenkos, LLC              United States

YouDamain.com LLC               United States

Your Domain Casa, LLC           United States

Your Domain King, Inc.           India

Your Domain LLC     United States

Zeus 888, LLC          United States

Zhengzhou Business Technology Co., Ltd.              China

Zhengzhou Century Connect Electronic Technology Development Co., Ltd           China

Zhengzhou Zitian Network Technology Co., Ltd.    China

Zhenjiang Aimingwang Information and Technology Co., Ltd               China

Zhong Yu Network Technology Company Limited Taiwan

Zhuimi Inc               United States

ZigZagNames.com LLC           United States

Zinc Domain Names LLC         United States

ZNet Technologies Pvt Ltd.     India

Zone Casting, Inc.   India

Zone of Domains LLC              United States

ZoomRegistrar LLC United States

ICANN is looking for an advertising agency to help it get the word out about the new generic top-level domains program, but it only has $750,000 to spend.

The organization published a request for proposals last night.

The budget is not much in the advertising world, especially considering that ICANN’s awareness program will have to be global and multilingual to be truly effective.

With such a limited budget, the RFP and accompanying FAQ acknowledges that it will need “creative solutions” from its ad agency.

This is likely to mean a big PR push for advertising equivalent editorial – lots and lots of news stories about new gTLDs.

To an extent, the word is already out by this measure. My standing Google News and Twitter searches for “ICANN” have been going crazy since the gTLD program was approved two weeks ago.

I think it’s fair to say that the vast majority deal of the coverage so far has been either neutral or negative, with much of the focus on potential legal, branding and security problems.

That’s pretty much par for the course in the domain name business, of course.

And ICANN does not necessarily need positive spin – it’s trying to raise awareness of the program’s existence, and negative coverage does that job just as well.

There is, as they say, no such thing as bad publicity.

ICANN’s job of promoting the program is already being done to a large extent by the registries, many of which were investing heavily in media outreach before new gTLDs were approved.

ICANN added further TLDs,starting with a set of sponsored top-level domains. The application period for these was from December 15, 2003 until March 16, 2004, and resulted in ten applications. Of these, ICANN has approved asia, cat, jobs, mobi, tel and travel, all of which are now in operation

2004 February VeriSign filed a lawsuit against ICANN on February 27, 2004, claiming that ICANN had oversteppedits authority. In this lawsuit, VeriSign sought to reduce ambiguity about ICANN’s authority. The antitrust component of VeriSign’s claim was dismissed in August 2004.VeriSign’s broader challenge that ICANN overstepped its contractual rights is currently outstanding. A proposed settlement already approved by ICANN’s board would resolve VeriSign’s challenge to ICANN in exchange for the right to increase pricing on .com domains. At the meeting of ICANN in Rome which took place from March 2 to March 6, 2004, ICANN agreed to ask approval of the US Department of Commerce for the Waiting List Service of VeriSign.

2004 May 17th On May 17, 2004, ICANN published a proposed budget for the year 2004-05. It included proposals to increase the openness and professionalism of its operations, and greatly increased its proposed spending from US $8.27 million to $15.83 million. The increase was to be funded by the introduction of new top-level domains, charges to domain registries, and a fee for some domain name registrations, renewals and transfers (initially USD 0.20 for all domains within a country-code top-leveldomain, and USD 0.25 for all others). The Council of European National Top Level Domain Registries (CENTR), which represents the Internet registries of 39 countries, rejected the increase, accusing ICANN of a lack of financial prudence and criticizing what it describes as ICANN’s “unrealistic political and operational targets”. Despite the criticism, the registry agreement for the top-level domains jobs and travel includes a US $2 fee on every domain the licensed companies sell or renew.

• 2004 June pro became a gTLD in May 2002, but did not become fully operational until June 2004
• 2004 July CreditCards.com for $2.75 million in July 2004
• 2005 After a second round of negotiations in 2004, the TLDs eu, asia, travel, jobs, mobi, and cat were introduced in 2005.
• 2005 tp (the previous ISO 3166-1 code for East Timor): Being phased out in favor of tl since 2005.
• 2005 The org domain registry allows the registration of selected internationalized domain names (IDNs) as second-level domains. For German, Danish, Hungarian, Icelandic, Korean, Latvian, Lithuanian, Polish, and Swedish IDNs this has been possible since 2005. Spanish IDN registrations have been possible since 2007.

2005 June 30th Verisign, the operator of net after acquiring Network Solutions, held an operations contract that expired on June 30, 2005. ICANN, the organization responsible for domain management, sought proposals from organizations to operate the domain upon expiration of the contract. Verisign regained the contract bid, and secured its control over the net registry for another six years. On June 30, 2011, the contract with Verisign was automatically renewed for another six years due do an clause in the contract with ICANN which states renewal will be automatic unless Verisign commits something egregious.

2005 November In the early 2000s, there had been speculation that the United Nations might signal a takeover of ICANN, followed by a negative reaction from the US government and worries about a division of the Internet the World Summit on the Information Society in Tunisia in November

2005 agreed not to get involved in the day-to-day and technical operations of ICANN.However it also agreed to set up an international Internet Governance Forum, with a consultative role on the future governance of the Internet. ICANN’s Government Advisory Committee is currently set up to provide advice to ICANN regarding public policy issues and has participation by many of the world’s governments.

2005 December 7th eu (European Union): On September 25, 2000, ICANN decided to allow the use of any two-lettercode inthe ISO 3166-1 reserve list that is reserved for all purposes. Only EU currently meets this criterion. Following a decision by the EU’s Council of Telecommunications Ministers in March 2002, progress was slow, but a registry (namedEURid) was chosen by the European Commission, and criteria for allocation set: ICANN approved eu as a ccTLD, and it opened for registration on 7 December 2005 for the holders of prior rights. Since 7 April 2006, registration is open to all.

2006 Database size, which had been a significant marketing feature through the early 2000s, was similarly displaced by emphasis on relevancy ranking, the methods by which search engines attempt to sort the best results first. Relevancy ranking first became a major issue circa 1996, when it became apparent that it was impractical to review full lists of results.Consequently, algorithms for relevancy ranking have continuously improved.Google’s PageRank method for ordering the results has received the most press,but all major search engines continually refine their ranking methodologies with a view toward improving the ordering of results. As of 2006, search engine rankings are more important than ever, so much so that an industry has developed (“search engine optimizers”, or “SEO”) to help web-developers improve their search ranking, and an entire body of case law has developed around matters that affect search engine rankings, such as use of trademarks in metatags. The sale ofsearch rankings by some search engines has also created controversy among librarians and consumer advocates.

2006 28th February On February 28, 2006, ICANN’s board approved a settlement with VeriSign in the lawsuit resulting from SiteFinder that involved allowing VeriSign (the registry) to raise its registration fees by up to 7% a year. This was criticised by some people in theUS House of Representatives’ Small Business committee.

2006 March 1996 ac (Ascension Island): This code is avestige of IANA’s decision in1996 to allow the use of codes reserved in the ISO3166-1 alpha-2 reserve list for use by the Universal Postal Union. The decision was later reversed, with Ascension Island now the sole outlier. (Three otherccTLDs, gg (Guernsey), im (Isle of Man) and je (Jersey) also fell under this category from 1996 until they received corresponding ISO 3166 codes in March2006.)

2006 July On July 26, 2006, the United States government renewed the contract with ICANN for performance of the IANA function for an additional one to five years. The context of ICANN’s relationship with the U.S.government was clarified on September 29, 2006 when ICANN signed a new Memorandum of Understanding with the United States Department of Commerce(DOC).

International Business Machines Corporation (commonly referred to as IBM) is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Armonk, New York, United States, with operations in over 170 countries. The company originated in 1911 as the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company (CTR) and was renamed “International Business Machines” in 1924. IBM manufactures and markets computer hardware, middleware and software, and offers hosting and consulting services in areas ranging from mainframe computers to nanotechnology. IBM is also a major research organization, holding the record for most patents generated by a business (as of 2016) for 23 consecutive years. Inventions by IBM include the automated teller machine (ATM), the floppy disk, the hard disk drive, the magnetic stripe card, the relational database, the SQL programming language, the UPC barcode, and dynamic random-access memory (DRAM).

IBM has continually shifted its business mix by exiting commoditizing markets and focusing on higher-value, more profitable markets. This includes spinning off printer manufacturer Lexmark in 1991 and selling off its personal computer (ThinkPad) and x86-based server businesses to Lenovo (2005 and 2014, respectively), and acquiring companies such as PwC Consulting (2002), SPSS (2009), and The Weather Company (2016).  Also in 2014, IBM announced that it would go “fabless”, continuing to design semiconductors but offloading manufacturing to GlobalFoundries. Nicknamed Big Blue, IBM is one of 30 companies included in the Dow Jones Industrial Average and one of the world’s largest employers, with (as of 2016) nearly 380,000 employees. Known as “IBMers”, IBM employees have been awarded five Nobel Prizes, six Turing Awards, ten National Medals of Technology and five National Medals of Science.

History

In the 1880s, technologies emerged that would ultimately form the core of what would become International Business Machines (IBM). Julius E. Pitrat patented the computing scale in 1885; Alexander Dey invented the dial recorder (1888); Herman Hollerith patented the Electric Tabulating Machine;[8] and Willard Bundy invented a time clock to record a worker’s arrival and departure time on a paper tape in 1889. On June 16, 1911, their four companies were consolidated in New York State by Charles Ranlett Flint to form the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company (CTR) based in Endicott, New York. The four companies had 1,300 employees and offices and plants in Endicott and Binghamton, New York; Dayton, Ohio; Detroit, Michigan; Washington, D.C.; and Toronto. They manufactured machinery for sale and lease, ranging from commercial scales and industrial time recorders, meat and cheese slicers, to tabulators and punched cards. Thomas J. Watson, Sr., fired from the National Cash Register Company by John Henry Patterson, called on Flint and, in 1914, was offered CTR. Watson joined CTR as General Manager then, 11 months later, was made President when court cases relating to his time at NCR were resolved. Having learned Patterson’s pioneering business practices, Watson proceeded to put the stamp of NCR onto CTR’s companies. He implemented sales conventions, “generous sales incentives, a focus on customer service, an insistence on well-groomed, dark-suited salesmen and had an evangelical fervor for instilling company pride and loyalty in every worker”. His favorite slogan, “THINK”, became a mantra for each company’s employees.[14] During Watson’s first four years, revenues more than doubled to $9 million and the company’s operations expanded to Europe, South America, Asia and Australia. “Watson had never liked the clumsy hyphenated title of the CTR” and chose to replace it with the more expansive title “International Business Machines”.

In 1937, IBM’s tabulating equipment enabled organizations to process unprecedented amounts of data, its clients including the U.S. Government, during its first effort to maintain the employment records for 26 million people pursuant to the Social Security Act, and Hitler’s Third Reich, largely through the German subsidiary Dehomag. During the Second World War the company produced small arms for the American war effort (M1 Carbine, and Browning Automatic Rifle).

In 1949, Thomas Watson, Sr., created IBM World Trade Corporation, a subsidiary of IBM focused on foreign operations. In 1952, he stepped down after almost 40 years at the company helm, and his son Thomas Watson, Jr. was named president. In 1956, the company demonstrated the first practical example of artificial intelligence when Arthur L. Samuel of IBM’s Poughkeepsie, New York, laboratory programmed an IBM 704 not merely to play checkers but “learn” from its own experience. In 1957, the FORTRAN scientific programming language was developed. In 1961, IBM developed the SABRE reservation system for American Airlines and introduced the highly successful Selectric typewriter. In 1963, IBM employees and computers helped NASA track the orbital flight of the Mercury astronauts. A year later it moved its corporate headquarters from New York City to Armonk, New York. The latter half of the 1960s saw IBM continue its support of space exploration, participating in the 1965 Gemini flights, 1966 Saturn flights and 1969 lunar mission.

On April 7, 1964, IBM announced the first computer system family, the IBM System/360. Sold between 1964 and 1978, it spanned the complete range of commercial and scientific applications from large to small, allowing companies for the first time to upgrade to models with greater computing capability without having to rewrite their application. In 1974, IBM engineer George J. Laurer developed the Universal Product Code. IBM and the World Bank first introduced financial swaps to the public in 1981 when they entered into a swap agreement. The IBM PC, originally designated IBM 5150, was introduced in 1981, and it soon became an industry standard. In 1991, IBM sold printer manufacturer Lexmark. In 1993, IBM posted a US$8 billion loss – at the time the biggest in American corporate history. Lou Gerstner was hired as CEO from RJR Nabisco to turn the company around. In 2002, IBM acquired PwC consulting, and in 2003 it initiated a project to redefine company values, hosting a three-day online discussion of key business issues with 50,000 employees. The result was three values: “Dedication to every client’s success”, “Innovation that matters—for our company and for the world”, and “Trust and personal responsibility in all relationships”.

In 2005, the company sold its personal computer business to Chinese technology company Lenovo and, in 2009, it acquired software company SPSS Inc. Later in 2009, IBM’s Blue Gene supercomputing program was awarded the National Medal of Technology and Innovation by U.S. President Barack Obama. In 2011, IBM gained worldwide attention for its artificial intelligence program Watson, which was exhibited on Jeopardy! where it won against game-show champions Ken Jennings and Brad Rutter. In 2012, IBM announced it has agreed to buy Kenexa, and a year later it also acquired SoftLayer Technologies, a web hosting service, in a deal worth around $2 billion. In 2014, IBM announced it would sell its x86 server division to Lenovo for a fee of $2.1 billion. Also that year, IBM began announcing several major partnerships with other companies, including Apple Inc., Twitter, Facebook, Tencent, Cisco, UnderArmour, Box, Microsoft, VMware, CSC, Macy’s, and Sesame Workshop, the parent company of Sesame Street. In 2015, IBM announced two major acquisitions: Merge Healthcare for $1 billion and all digital assets from The Weather Company, including Weather.com and the Weather Channel mobile app.  Also that year, IBMers created the film A Boy and His Atom, which was the first molecule movie to tell a story. In 2016, IBM acquired video conferencing service Ustream and formed a new cloud video unit. In April 2016, it posted a 14-year low in quarterly sales. The following month, Groupon sued IBM accusing it of patent infringement, two months after IBM accused Groupon of patent infringement in a separate lawsuit.